Analysis Of The Movie Cycles - 2059 Words

Our film, Cycles, is a comedy/drama about a student who witnesses two men getting rid of a body on his way home at night. When they notice him, he steals a bike and escapes and struggles with a haunting paranoia of the two â€Å"gangsters† finding and killing him. The film ends when the doorbell rings suddenly and he reluctantly opens it expecting to see the men. Instead he sees a girl who wants her bike back after he stole it. He returns and bike and turns around relieved, only to be clobbered by the two men who had been waiting for him after all. They go to dispose of his body, but a woman sees them and the film ends with them looking at her, implying that the story loops on itself. In a television drama, it’s important that the audience can†¦show more content†¦In the 19th century, Gustav Freytag notice a similarity in plays and books and created a diagram to demonstrate this, which consists of 5 milestones in the story: 1. Exposition/Introduction: This is where the main characters (and some supporting) are introduced and we get a look into their regular lives before their journey begins. This is also where we see some minor conflict which could build into the main goal. 2. Rising Action: This is where the character’s mission is made clear and they begin their journey. Obstacles are introduced to prevent the protagonists achieving their goals. 3. Climax: The rising action continues building drama until the biggest obstacle lies before the characters, sometimes confronting an antagonist, which they may or may not overcome. 4. Falling Action: Things become clearer and the characters, depending on if came out on top during the climax, are either closing in to their goal or feel their furthest away from it. To create suspense, this is normally where a twist would come in, a successful protagonist could find out their friend was working against them the whole time, or a failed hero discovers something new that gives them another chance. 5. Conclusion: This is where we see the characters triumph or fail and the following consequences. We might see them return to normality or see the backlash after failing their task. This normally gives the audience a sense of closure and

Role of Student in Making of Pakistan Free Essays

Pakistan — an ideological state: Pakistan claims itself to lay an ideological state because it is founded on a certain specific ideology-the ideology of Islam. It came into being because Muslims of the Indo-Pak subcontinent developed a specific attitude of mind-and attitude which was determined by the consciousness of certain principles or objectives which they felt must be realized. These were the eternal spiritual and ethical values of Islam. We will write a custom essay sample on Role of Student in Making of Pakistan or any similar topic only for you Order Now Islam gives ethical bases of life to the Muslim nation. To them Islam is more than a religion as considered in the western sense. It is in fact a complete code of life which embraces social, political, economic and cultural aspects of human behaviors. Ideology of Pakistan: The ideology of Pakistan, the overwhelming Muslim country is ideology which comprises the dictates and sanctions which are attributed or prone to the Islamic concept of nation and that of state. i) Muslim nationhood: As regards the Muslims, their basis of nationhood is neither geographical boundaries nor social or linguistic similarities but their religion-Islam. All Muslims are a nation without any distinction. This is the first principle of Pakistan ideology on which Quaid-i-Azam demanded a separate homeland for the Muslims of the subcontinent. To Pakistan, Islam is the basis of ‘Nationalism’. II) Islamic state: The ideology of Pakistan is based on the principles and ideals of Islam. Islam is the ideal for which Muslims struggled and on which the ideals on the newly born nation were based. III) Ancient ideology: Ideology of Pakistan- the Islamic way of life is not something life a manifesto that Pakistanis adopted in the morrows of their freedom. On the country, it is as old as Islam itself. Indeed Indo-Pakistani Muslim emerged as a new nation because they had stood fast to this ideology. They founded a new state because they had described to enthrone the values underlying this ideology without being checked by the domination of other conflicting values. It has been sufficiently warranted by the historical facts that not withstanding a thousand years of co-existence of the two communities-the Hindus and the Muslims, in the Indian subcontinent, they could not become harmonic, cohesive, was the expediency which was based on regionality. But this regionality could not become effective since the Muslim community is totally different from the Hindu society having its own moods and methods, names and nomenclature legends and heroes, language and literature, this concept of co-existence between them even at the regional levels could not prove a success. Thus they started their struggle for a separate homeland on the basis of Islamic ideology. How to cite Role of Student in Making of Pakistan, Essays

A Key Christian Belief Essay Example For Students

A Key Christian Belief Essay Prayer is a universal human experience. There is not a culture in the world that does not have some means of prayer, some way of communicating with the Divine. That is why I have chosen to examine prayer. Prayer is one of the key beliefs of Christians. Prayer illuminates our relationship with God and allows us to express our love for Him, our faith and hope in Him. We have the opportunity to share our concerns, fears, needs and desires with the Almighty. The quality of our prayer life is directly related to the quality of our spiritual life and our knowledge of God. If we understand the purpose of prayer and its components, we are able to strive towards enhancing our prayer life where it becomes rich and fulfilling. When we develop our prayer life, we develop a stronger and deeper relationship with God; our prayers become our point of power. Pray is a means of communicating with God. Aside from studying the Word of God, prayer is a method used to help us develop a relationship with G od and also to know His will for our lives. Prayer is the privilege of speaking and listening to God. Eastons Bible Dictionary defines prayer as conversation with God; the intercourse of the soul with God, not in contemplation or meditation, but in direct address to him. Prayer may be oral or mental, occasional or constant, ejaculatory; or formal. It is a beseeching the Lord (Ex. 32:11); pouring out the soul before the Lord (1 Sam. 1:15); praying and crying to heaven (2 Chr. 32:20); seeking unto God and making supplication (Job 8:5); drawing near to God (Ps. 73:28); and bowing the knees (Eph. 3:14). There are four components of prayer: worship or praise, confession, thanksgiving and supplication. Praise is an acknowledgement of Gods goodness, greatness, and loving kindness. After King David assembled the building materials for the future temple, he declared, Yours, O Lord, are the greatness, the power, the glory, the victory and the majesty; yours is the kingdom (1 Chr 29:11). Kind David was praising God. He was acknowledging Gods goodness and greatness because even though he was building a temple to offer to God, he knew that only by Gods greatness is he able. According to Fee and Stuart (1993), God deserves praise for his greatness and goodness in spite of and in the midst of our misery. This life holds no certainty of freedom from distress (p. 205). Christians pray to confess their sins. Confession might be defined as telling God the truth about oneself. Confession is the process of bringing the darkness of ones faults to the light of Gods forgiveness. If I had cherished sin in my heart, the Lord would not have listened (Psalm 66:18). This means that one must not only confess ones sins but one most also repent. When the Lord convicts us of sin, we need to own it, confess it, and then believe in Gods willingness to forgive us. For I know my transgressions, and my sin is ever before me. Against you, you alone, have I sinned, and done what is evil in your sight, so that you are justified in your sentence and blameless when you pass judgment (Psalms 51). This Psalm is Davids prayer to God after Nathan condemns him for killing Uriah the Hittite and then making Uriahs wife his wife. The Bible tells Christians to give God thanks for everything. It is very important to thank God when He has answered a prayer. In Deuteronomy 8:17-18, Moses said, Do not say to yourself, My power and the might of my own hand have gotten me this wealth. But remember the Lord your God, for it is he who gives you power to get wealth. Moses was warning the Israelites not to forget God in Prosperity and that they should thank God for bringing them out of Egypt. Finally, Christians pray for supplication. There are two types of supplication: petition and intercession. Petition means to ask for our own needs. Jesus said, So I say to you, Ask, and it will be given you; search, and you will find; knock, and the door will be opened for you (Luke 11:9). Jesus was telling his disciples to persevere in prayer and God will give them what they ask. God invites us to ask Him to meet our needs and even our wants. Medicinal Marijuana EssayIn addition, relationship is dependent on communication. Our relationship with God, or anyone, will never grow and develop without communication. Prayer should not be used only as a way of getting what we want from God; a method of solving our problems or having our needs met. The main purpose and the power of prayer are in the relationship between God and man. Prayer is one of the most important beliefs of Christians. Prayer helps us to develop a relationship with God. Pray keeps us connected with God. Prayer is an intimate communication between an individual and God. There are four basic elements to prayer: worship, thanksgiving, confession and supplication. When we pray in worship, we are praise God for being a loving, caring and great God. We pray in thanksgiving to give thanks to God for all the blessings he has bestow on us. We pray to confess our sins to God and to ask for his forgiveness. Finally, we pray when we need or want something for ourselves or for others. In addition, when we pray, we should follow Jesus example by praying at all times and praying for Gods will to be done. Also, we should have faith when we pray. We should also be comfortable and truthful in our communication with God. The meaning and the concept of prayer have not changed. However, I dont believe we, as Christians, pray as often as we should. Not many of us spend time in prayer. We believe in the power and importance of prayer but just dont seem to do enough of it. We dont pray enough for several reasons. A few of the reasons are as follows: First, we dont want anything. Too many of us lead satisfied, complacent lives. Other than an occasional problem or two, things go pretty well for us in our comfortable homes and churches. We have money, houses and quite a few other material things. Why pray a lot when we got basically everything we want? Second, we dont care enough about others. We say Good morning and Have a nice day to people at work and at church, and we commiserate with our neighbor about the yard and the weather, but thats about as far as it goes. We dont care enough about others to go beyond bland superficiality, so we dont pray for them much. Third, we are too busy. Whether it is becaus e of our jobs, the kids or our social life, must of us are too busy to take time to pray. Especially since we have basically everything we want. In addition, some of us dont have time to attend Church on Sundays. How could we neglect one of the most blessed things that God has given to us? How is it possible for us as Christians to go for weeks, months and maybe even years without really taking the time for prayer? I believe it is because the world system has distorted our thinking. We are more concerned with our jobs, our families or friends and our activitiesour own plans, than our spirituality and prayer. However, we need to keep God central in our life. Otherwise, we will miss His plan. Bibliography:Barth, K. (1985). Prayer. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press. Carey, G. (1996). The Bible for Everyday Life. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Easton Bible Dictionary. (Online). www.interhack.net/projects/library/easton/Fee, G. D. ; Stuart, D. (1993). How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth. 2ed. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House. Foster, R. J. (1992). Prayer: Finding the Hearts True Home. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. Lustiger, J. M. (1987). First Steps in Prayer. New York: Doubleday. The Holy Bible. New Revised Standard Version. (1989). New York: American Bible Society

Peter Pan Alice In Wonderland Essay Example

Peter Pan Alice In Wonderland Paper Lices Adventures in Wonderland Through the Looking Glass: Critique In Lewis Carols novel Lices Adventures in Wonderland Through the Looking Glass, the main character Alice transports into an incredible and fascinating world unlike any other. It has a twist on logic and messes with your mind, while bringing adults back to their childhood of imagination and creativity. Soon after Alice gets to this bonkers and unbalanced world she meets many strange creatures: A white rabbit who claims he is late for who knows what, a Caterpillar smoking a hookah, a Cheshire cat that comes and goes irregularly, the March Hare, the Mad Hatter, and a very tired dormouse that tends to fall asleep periodically. Alice makes friends with these extraordinary characters and enjoys some short adventures with them. Alice soon after meets the King and Queen. The Queen, who is difficult to please, screeches her trademark phrase Off with his head! which she blasted at the slightest dissatisfaction with a subject. Later on Alice is in court as a witness, but displeases the King and Queen by not obeying orders. The Queen shouts her well- now line Off with her head! And the playing cards are sent to attack. Then Alice is awoken by her sister for tea. It was all a dream, yet it felt so real? This book makes us think, imagine, and believe in mad and crazy ideas. Uniform entirely bonkers, but let me tell you a secret: All the best people are. Peter Pan: Critique Peter Pan is a well-known and beloved story written by J. M. Barrier to tell of a wonderful world whe re you never grow up! Seems like the perfect place right? Well that is what Wendy, John, and Michael thought when the heard of this magical place. We will write a custom essay sample on Peter Pan Alice In Wonderland specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Peter Pan Alice In Wonderland specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Peter Pan Alice In Wonderland specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Peter lures them out and helps them to fly across the London sky. He tells them, Second to your right, and straight on till morning! Once they get there, the three children meet the Lost Boys who have been there for countless years. Everyone has an enjoyable time and sees many marvelous things. Soon though that entertaining time is put to a halt when the Lost Boys and Wendy brothers are taken by Indians. While this happens, Wendy is taken by the greedy and nasty pirate Captain Hook. The next chapters included deceit and trickery. Peter and Hook have a battle and free the Lost Boys, Wendy, John, and Michael. Peter becomes captain of the ship and takes the Darlings home. Peter Pan has and will always be a mix of adventures and fantasy. For adults it tells them about the inevitable loss of childhood. It shows there will always be a fight between yourself: Your youth (Peter Pan) and your darkness (Captain Hook). Do not take your childhood for granted, cherish every moment and if you are past that, make sure those around you do so. Peter Pan Alice In Wonderland By cheerleader

Steric Number Definition in Chemistry

Steric Number Definition in Chemistry Steric number is the number of atoms bonded to a central atom of a molecule plus the number of lone pairs attached to the central atom. The steric number of a molecule is used in VSEPRÂ  (valence shell electron pair repulsion) theory to determine the molecular geometry of a molecule. How to Find the Steric Number Use the Lewis structure to determine the steric number. The steric number gives the electron-pair arrangement for the geometry that maximizes distance between valence electron pairs. When the distance between valence electrons is maximized, the energy of the molecule is at its lowest state and the molecule is in its most stable configuration. The steric number is calculated using the following formula: Steric Number (number of lone electron pairs on the central atom) (number of atoms bonded to the central atom) Heres a handy table that gives the bond angle that maximizes separation between electrons and gives the associated hybrid orbital. Its a good idea to learn the bond angle and orbitals, since these appear on many standardized exams. S# bond angle hybrid orbital 4 109.5 sp3 hybrid orbital (4 total orbitals) 3 120 sp2 hybrid orbitals (3 total orbitals) 2 180 sp hybrid orbitals (2 total orbitals) 1 no angle s orbital (hydrogen has an S# of 1) Steric Number and Hybrid Orbital Steric Number Calculation Examples Methane (CH4) - Methane consists of carbon bonded to 4 hydrogen atoms and 0 lone pairs. Steric numer is 4.Water (H2O) - Water has two hydrogen atoms bonded to oxygen and also 2 lone pairs, so its steric number is 4.Ammonia (NH3) - Ammonia also has a steric number of 4 because it has 3 hydrogen atoms bonded to nitrogen and 1 lone electron pair.Ethylene (C2H4) - Ethylene has 3 bonded atoms and no lone pairs. Note the carbon double bond. Steric number 3.Acetylene (C2H2) - The carbons are bonded by a triple bond. There are 2 bonded atoms and no lone pairs. Steric number 2.Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - Carbon dioxide is an example of a compound that contains 2 sets of double bonds. There are 2 oxygen atoms bonded to carbon, with no lone pairs, so the steric number is 2. Shape Versus Steric Number Another way to look at molecular geometry is to assign the shape of the molecule according to steric number: SN 2 is linear SN 3 is trigonal planar SN 4 is tetrahedral SN 5 is trigonal bipyramidal SN 6 is octahedral Steric Number Key Takeaways In chemistry, a molecules steric number is the number of atoms bonded to the central atom plus the number of lone electron pairs surrounding the central atom.The steric number is used in VSEPR theory to predict molecular geometry.

Unit Conversion Example Problem - Pounds to Kilograms

Unit Conversion Example Problem - Pounds to Kilograms Pounds (lb) and kilograms (kg) are two important units of mass and weight. The units are used for body weight, produce weight, and many other measurements. This worked example problem demonstrates how to convert pounds to kilograms and kilograms to pounds. Pounds to Kilograms Problem A man weighs 176 lbs. What is his weight in kilograms? Start with the conversion factor between pounds and kilograms. 1 kg 2.2 lbs Write this in the form of an equation to solve for kilograms: weight in kg weight in lb x (1 kg / 2.2 lb) The pounds cancel out, leaving kilograms. In essence this means all you have to do to get a kilogram weight in pounds is divide by 2.2:x kg 176 lbs x 1 kg/2.2 lbsx kg 80 kg The 176 lb. man weighs 80 kg. Kilograms to Pounds Conversion Its easy to work the conversion the other way, too. If given a value in kilograms, all you need to do is multiply it by 2.2 to get the answer in pounds. For example, if a melon weighs 0.25 kilograms, its weight in pounds is 0.25 x 2.2 0.55 lbs. Check Your Work To get a ballpark conversion between pounds and kilograms, remember there are about 2 pounds in a 1 kilogram, or the number is twice as much. The other way to look at it is to remember there are about half as many kilograms in a pound.

Pakistan Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Pakistan - Research Paper Example Historically, Pakistan came under the rule of different rulers like the Mauryan Empire, which ruled for two hundred years before Christ (B.C). After this, Pakistan was conquered by the Kushan Empire. The area that is now Pakistan and India was always merged into one polity under all this different rulers who saw it as the best way to govern the Indian subcontinent (Kaplan 2). The area was characterized by two rivers; the Ganges River and the Indus River and their tributaries. The Indus River and its tributaries fall on the Pakistan side and the Indus with its tributaries fall on the Indian side, with the watershed running almost perfectly matching the border demarcation that separates the two countries. Earlier rulers, like the Kushans, never tried to demarcate the region into two separate entities unlike the British, Mughals and the Mauryans, who saw the need to group them under such entities (Kaplan 3). The source of Pakistan’s troubles could be attributed to the Muslim expe rience that Pakistan got under different Islamic warriors. Every successive conquest saw the area named as Pakistan today; being at the center of these conquered territories (Kaplan 1). One of the major capitals of the Mauryan Empire was Peshawar, which is a major city in today’s Pakistan. This further indicates that this region and Pakistan, as a whole, have had a long running history with Muslim influence (Kaplan 2). This does not imply that religion is the problem, in Pakistan, but an avenue used, by wrong elements, to act as a vessel for their objectives. Hurdles facing Pakistan can be linked to its history of being a frontier territory because it acted as a transition point for many cultures, religions and governments even in the medieval ages. There was the influence of religion and cultural diversity, from the Arab world and central Asia, on one side, and change of governments from the eastern frontier. It was made up of different socio-cultural elements, and with the dawn of the 20Th century, Pakistan did not inherit any form stable institutions that citizens believed in as was the case with neighboring India after Colonial rule (Kaplan 2). When Pakistan came into being, the majority of the country’s wealth existed in the Indus valley, which encompasses the Punjab state. It has the best irrigation fields and the river basin provided numerous resources business opportunities. The area was also on the trade routes used to trade with other neighboring regions like Afghanistan, China and Russia (New York Times 34). It has the best schools and the majority of females are educated unlike other parts of Pakistan like the Sindhi, Baluchistan and Pashtun states. This caused discontent to develop between the privileged state of Punjab and the rest of the country (Kaplan 3). This led to the development of strong ethnic authorities at the expense of government institutions that were lacking or were inefficient. Their different linguistic varieties st rengthened the animosity between different warring factions. This has left the country with Islamic idealism as the only attempt at unification which has fuelled Islamic extremism (Kaplan 4). The inhabitants of the Indus River valley complain that they are discriminated against as the only working portion of the population (Kaplan 4). Failed or failing state institutions are the

BI POLAR DISORDER Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

BI POLAR DISORDER - Research Paper Example Bipolar disorder (Kessler, Berglund, Demler , Jin, Merikangas and Walters, 2005) usually develops in the late teens or in the stage of a person's early adult years, whereby at least half of the entire cases start prior to age 25. In addition, this illness is common, in fact, approximately three percent (3%) or 10 million adults (affecting both men and women) in the US population have bipolar disorder (The National Alliance on Mental Illness, 2008). Categories of Bipolar Disorder The National Institute for Health (2009) characterized Bipolar Disorder into four basic types : First is the Bipolar I Disorder, which is mainly defined by episodes of manic or mixed episodes and last at least seven days; in severe cases, the person needs immediate hospital care; Second, the Bipolar II Disorder which is defined by episodes of pattern of depressive shifting back and forth jointly with hypomanic episodes, however, no full-blown Bipolar disorder 3 manic or of mixed episodes; Third is the Bipolar Disorder which is â€Å"Not Otherwise Specified† (BP-NOS), diagnosed if a person's illness has symptoms that do not match with diagnostic criteria (whetherr bipolar I or II); Fourth is the Cyclothymic Disorder, or Cyclothymia, manifested by a mild form of bipolar disorder. In this type of condition, patients exhibit cyclothymia (episodes of hypomania) that shift back and forth together with mild depression around two years. Signs and Symptoms of Illness There is no absolute cause of bipolar disorder, however, most scientists believe that this illness is likely caused by multiple factors, which interact with each other in order to produce a chemical imbalance and affecting some parts of the brain. Most experts also say, Bipolar disorder usually runs in families; and studies suggest that there must be a genetic component to the disorder. Moreover, the first episode is usually trigger by a stressful event, such as difficult relationship or financial problems,unexpected loss, ch ronic illness, or any major change in life. Therefore, an individual’s coping strategies of handling stress may play essential role in the development of symptoms (The National Institute for Health, 2009). In some instances, drug abuse can trigger the disorder. Living in a stressful life situations also may lead to sleep loss or changes in one’s schedule can also contribute to the onset as well as, recurrence of depression and mania (The National Alliance on Mental Illness, 2008). According to New York State Office of Mental Health (2008), the periods of highs and lows are known as episodes of mania and depression. The Signs and symptoms of manic episode include: Restlessness, increased energy, excessively â€Å"high,† overly good, euphoric mood, little sleep needed, extreme irritability, racing thoughts and talking very fast, Bipolar disorder 4 inability to concentrate, distractibility, poor judgment, unrealistic beliefs in one’s abilities, increased sex ual drive, spending sprees, intrusive, provocative or aggressive behavior, lasting period of behavior usually different from usual, denial that anything is wrong and abuse of drugs, particularly alcohol, cocaine, and sleeping medications.

The Human and Professional Values of Managers Essay Example for Free

The Human and Professional Values of Managers Essay The Human and Professional values of Managers: Impact on the profession Some values which can be related to good managers are truth; care, peace, justice and responsibility. Truth is something which is inborn in human behavior. Whether one lives by it or ignores it depends on his upbringing and surrounding factors. A person who has been brought up in an environment where lying was the way of life, will end up doing the same in future even on becoming a manager. Another value is care or love. A manager should care for his employees and respect their feelings. This is a sign of a good manager. A manager should always try to maintain peace at the workplace. He should cultivate the thought of reason and negotiation instead of aggression. Justice is a trait which is required in a manager. He should be able to judge between the right and the wrong for his employees. He should see to it that deserving candidates are rewarded for their hard work. A manager should always bear the responsibility for his actions and not shrug them. It’s generally the manager who is responsible for the subordinates work and he should deal with it and guide his subordinates to perform the best possible work. Leadership Professionalism Effectiveness Innovation Management Public Interest Participation Planning Efficiency 10. Strategy Managers may face a situation when they have to take a choice whether to follow their human or Professional Values. This can be a very tricky decision to take. A situation may arise such as he may know that a certain employee is about to be laid off in a month. But he has order from his superiors not to let him know till the last minute. Now he has to decide whether he will tell the employee the truth or be professional and follow orders. Such decisions have a big impact on the mind of the manager and all people affected by the wrong decision. For a manager, he has to always try to emulate the company values so that all his subordinates can follow his example. He always has to be punctual, responsible, and efficient so that all his subordinates follow his lead. To do might require some compromise on his home front, since to adhere to his values; he might have to work overtime, thus losing out on time spent with his family. But it will certainly cause a positive reaction from his subordinates. A manager will many a times face the dilemma of which employees to reward or relegate. This is another time at which he has to take a decision based on his values. A lot of times, a manager may be in cohorts with an employee and decide to promote him over a more deserving candidate. He may even stick to is human values and promote the right person and ignore his friend and give adequate justice. It may even be a case where you have to lay off a friend when the situation arises. However he may choose not to and not behave in a professional way. Which value will any person choose depends on the situation, consequences and his own characteristics. The Impact of Professional and Human values on managers are huge. They determine the behavior of the manager in his day to day activity. One cannot say which value a manager will employ, but whichever choice he makes determines the personality of the manager. It can lead to success or failure of a manager in his work.

Influential Event :: essays papers

Influential Event Experience is what you receive when you don’t get what you want." I remembered my father’s words as I tried to postpone the coming massacre. Like during the fall of the Roman Empire, my allies became enemies and my foes turned into partners. In fast and furious action with property changing hands again and again, I rested my fate on the words of one man, hoping he would rescue me from this dangerous tailspin. Don’t these experts realize the heartbreak they’re inflicting on my young life? While the uncertainty of tomorrow’s attire is the most pressing concern for many seventeen-year-olds, I must worry about much greater issues! It’s August 31,the market is down over 300 points and the value of my stock portfolio is falling fast. Usually, whenever I mention the words stockbroker or investment other students snicker that I’m actually interested in â€Å"that stock market stuff." My interest in investing began when as a naà ¯ve freshmen I learned that my assistant JV basketball coach Tom Wingfield worked with Dean Witter as a stockbroker. Over the course of the season, I expressed interest in his job, and we became inseparable. Tom became my mentor, and I absorbed every word he spoke. Almost immediately, I became infatuated with the market and wanted to invest every penny I have. To the delight of my fifteen-year old brother, before school I even found myself opening the newspaper directly to the business section, giving my brother first rights to the sports page for the first time in his life. Hoping to soon enter the market, I worked at a nearby retirement home for several months and earned a little money. To help me buy more stock, my father agreed to match any amount of money I invested. I told Tom about the plan, and he thought it was fantastic. The next day, I had a stock portfolio and dreams of retiring by age 30. Three years have elapsed since that fateful November morning, and every two weeks I religiously place part of my retirement home paycheck into the market. Every small-time investor probably dreams of making a million dollars; I was no different. I pictured my meager investments taking off and my becoming a professional trader. August 31 quickly jolted me back to reality, and I was reminded of that infamous expression my father told me. No one really plays the market for experience; that’s just what people say after losing money.

Body Image vs Self Esteem Essay

According to Merriam Webster’s Dictionary, diet is food and drink regularly provided or consumed. It is also defined as the regimen of eating and drinking sparingly so as to reduce one’s weight. The latter definition will be the one used for this research paper. Currently, up to fifty percent of women have tried dieting at some point in their lives and at least 90 percent of teenagers diet regularly. Due to this, the â€Å"diet fad† is worth billions with its government, pharmaceutical, and weight loss agencies funding it. see more:a handout that explains the link between identity self image and self esteem Americans alone spend more money on weight loss programs and products than any other nation. People go on diets for a number of reasons. One reason is their concern for their health. Many people who live a healthier life are geared towards a restricted diet and lifestyle due to medical reasons. Second reason and probably the most common is to achieve a better body image. Body Image is how people perceive their physical appearance due to self-observation and the reaction of peers. It is how people see themselves and how comfortable they feel about their physical appearances. Even though it is more of a personal evaluation there are several factors that can influence how we perceive our bodies. One factor that can shape one’s body image is culture. Different cultures have different definitions of what they consider beautiful or ugly. For example, a culture would consider a girl with many tattoos as beautiful which could then bring about a positive body image. On the other hand, other cultures would label women with tattoos as impure. Another factor would be the influence of the media on body image. It can either heighten positive body image or aggravate it. Standards of beauty are often defined by what we see on magazines and televisions. People are often exposed to images of â€Å"perfection† that it sends messages that this is how men and women should look. The pressure to achieve â€Å"physical perfection† causes people to be unsatisfied with how they look. Due to this, teenagers often go on â€Å"fad diets’ to improve their negative body image. Teenagers would normally compare themselves to models which contributes to low self-esteem and heightens body image issues. This could eventually lead to depression, loss of self-esteem and eating disorders. A negative body image develops when the person feels that he/she doesn’t match up to society’s or even his/her personal standards of beauty. This causes people with negative body image to be often dissatisfied with how they look. According to Kathryn Yarborough (2009), â€Å"there are two main types of body image disturbances: distortion and dissatisfaction. † Distortion is when we have inaccurate visual perception of ourselves. For example, anorexic people still feel fat despite being underweight. People get dissatisfied when they cannot find contentment with how they look. These body image disturbances are what affect emotional and mental thinking. Victims of negative body image always feel self-conscious with no self-confidence at all. This causes their self-esteem to be naturally low. With this in mind, we want to evaluate the relationship on how body image affects the self-esteem of people. Self-esteem is defined as how a person values him/herself. This is more concerned on your personal opinion and how you respect yourself. Good self-esteem enables a person to exude a more positive outlook in life. According to Yarborough (2009), â€Å"studies indicate that regardless of actual attractiveness, the better the person feels about him/herself the higher his/her self-esteem will be and vice versa. † Self-esteem may also be defined as a ratio of a person’s success against his/her failures. When success gets the majority of the ratio, a person feels good about him/herself. A poor body image is classified under failures. In turn, self-esteem is hindered greatly by poor body image. There is a thin line between body image and self-esteem but one greatly affects the other. Body image becomes a major factor in having a high or low self-esteem. In improving your body image, you are unconsciously creating an â€Å"ideal self. † According to Brennecke (1978), â€Å"as we gain more experience with life, we begin to develop an image of what we wish to be: our ideal self. † He also stated that this is largely affected by culture, family, friends and media. In many cases, our ideal self can be unrealistic and hard to attain. These high expectations cause people to fall short on their image. As stated above, people usually prefer dieting as their key solution to improve their body image. Based on personal interviews, people are not always happy with the results of their dieting. Most of them are tempted by the food they try to avoid. Some of them don’t get contented with the results because it wasn’t what they were aiming for. This is because dieting is tricky. At the start, their metabolism slows down and during this transition, they lose weight easily. Once their bodies are used to the new di et pattern, losing weight will be difficult. Going back to their old eating habits, they gain weight easily because their bodies got used to eating little amounts. In conclusion, diet may or may not help a person’s body image. Whether we know it or not, having a positive image is crucial in developing a healthy mental, physical and emotional attitude. But we strongly advise people to improve their body image with methods other than dieting. According to Kienlen (2007), â€Å"Different people will find different tips helpful when it comes to building a healthy body image. Focusing on their positive qualities is one of these tips. Building a better body image means dwelling on your strengths. Another tip is to not spend too much time thinking about the flaws that peers point out. Sometimes it causes them to overlook their positive qualities. Lastly, being comfortable is always the best tip. People can put aside all their negatives when they are carefree. † This can fall under cognitive therapy where the person can restructure his/her thoughts to alter the negatives. As the author mentioned, one good way to treat body disturbances is to highlight and bring about the positive image of every individual. Strengths are under success. Its magnitude can be magnified by focusing on these strengths and in doing so; the success versus failure ratio might favor the success more. This rule also applies for people’s negatives, which goes under failure. By not pondering upon them, they are not magnified to favor the failures. According to Brennecke (1978), â€Å"your evaluation of your own self-worth is dependent on how close you come to your ideal self. If you’re meeting that image, you will experience self-esteem- that is, you’ll feel good about yourself. † In response to this, Judy Lightstone (1999) suggests that people should also be realistic about their ideal self that taking in mind genetic and environmental history. Apart from the mental aspect, it is important to take into consideration the physical aspect as well. Having a healthy diet and exercising regularly is also one step in achieving a positive body image. Research shows that while we exercise, our body releases endorphins—the body’s feel good chemicals. It boosts up our mood and improves how we tackle daily tasks. Exercise and endorphins are strongly linked to good mental health as well. To sum it all up, there are a number of ways to change how we think and perceive ourselves. It is dependent on the person and if he/she chooses to improve his well-being. Most of the discussions aforementioned are geared towards improving body images. The improvement of body image is key in achieving a healthy outlook in life, mentally, physically and emotionally. It is important because, as emphasized, it is closely related to self-esteem. Based on psychological tests, self-esteem greatly affects behavior, development and a person’s capability to make decisions. According to a study made by the Indiana University Medicine Media relations, statistics show that 40 percent of girls with low self-esteem versus 18 percent of girls with high self-esteem have tried sexual intercourse even before ninth grade. Hayers and Fors’ study (1998) report that low self-esteem is a common precedent to premarital sexual relationships which then could lead to unplanned pregnancies. They also found that as self-esteem decreases, sexual behavior becomes more prominent. Another test based on Candito (1996) concluded that those who were classified as â€Å"recovered alcoholics† pointed out that they have suffered from low self-esteem and marked it as their most significant problem. Kaplan (1975) conducted studies on 7,000 seventh graders and found that violence and crime holds a close link to low self-esteem as well. There are far more intriguing studies about the effects of self-esteem to oneself but based from the studies mentioned above, we can all see how pressing the issue of low self-esteem is. It is alarming and it is definitely something that should be acted upon immediately. In conclusion, we believe that one step in improving low self-esteem and avoiding all its bad effects is to first improve body image. It is through correcting how we see ourselves and choosing to improve our wellbeing will we then live out a happier and more fruitful life.

Red Bull Energy Drink Essay

* Red Bull can be called as a pioneer in the energy drink category worldwide. In India too, Red Bull was the brand that created the energy drink category. * The brand came into existence in 1984. * The brand came to India in 2003. Although the brand has been keeping a low profile compared to the Cola majors , Red Bull has created a category of energy drinks in the Indian market. 4. Contd. * According to Economic Times ( 30. 05. 08) the energy drink market in India is estimated to be around 100 crores. * The market now has two main players Red Bull and Power Horse. * RB has an assessed market share of 29% of the global market of energy Drinks. * In the U. S. , Red Bull enjoys a 47% share of the energy drink market, and now has a 50% share of the German energy drink market. 5. SWOT Analysis * Market leadership- Within the energy drinks market Red Bull is the industry leader throughout the world. Marketing Efforts- a lot of promotions and well targeted campaigns and sponsorship e. g. formula 1 helps to expand Red bull brand and increase consumer brand awareness. * Strong , fresh & fashionable brand identity. * Strengths 6. Weaknesses * Above-average prices. * Lack of innovation- there are a lot of competitors in the market and they have their own USP which leaves Red Bull behind. * Reliant on small product base- The company only markets one branded product, Red Bull Energy Drink (along with a sugar free variety). * Inexperience: is only 6 years old in India. * Lack of patent on RB ‘s recipe means anyone can copy it. 7. Opportunities * Extension of product line- this will help to retain market share. * Hardcore Advertising and Promotions. * Consumer recognition through sponsorship of sports events. * New ventures like partnership with Facebook. 8. Threats * Health concerns- tougher rules from government on high caffeine content. * Consumer awareness of health and well being- people may start to drink other alternatives as it is associated with healthier life style. * Drinks might not be accepted in the new markets. * Organic energy drinks might steal RB’s market share. 9. Promotion Opportunity Analysis * Competitive Analysis * Opportunity Analysis * Target Market Analysis * Customer Analysis * Market Segmentation Strategy 10. Competitive Analysis 11. Share of Energy Drink Market Red Bull 42. 6 Monster 14. 4 Rockstar 11. 4 Full Throttle 6. 9 Sobe No Fear 5. 4 Amp 3. 6 Sobe Adrenaline Rush 2. 9 Tab Energy 2. 3 Monster XXL 0. 9 Private Label 0. 9 Rip It 0. 8 Sobe Lean 0. 7 BooKoo 0. 5 Sobe Superman 0. 4 Von Dutch 0. 4 12. Real Competition * Redbull’s real competitors are the market leaders of cola companies such as : Pepsi & Coca Cola, who have created their brand leadership since several years in the Indian market. 13. Opportunity Analysis * RB has a niche market & is yet to percolate in the mass market. 14. Target Market Analysis * Core target market segments for RB consists of the core age group of 15 to 60. * Energy drinks with high sugar levels are more popular among children and women, while energy drinks with strong taste and flavor are more preferred by male consumers. * Recent studies also indicated that 65% of the energy drinks market consists of male consumers. 15. Customer Analysis * Young people are especially open to determined exhaustion and insufficient energy. * More specifically male teenagers & people in their 20s, are also most likely to believe in the authenticity of the energy drinks’. * As a result, the majority of energy drinks are developed for and advertised to this younger generation. * Appeal to very specialized groups, such as gamers, extreme sports enthusiasts, and the hip-hop crowd. 16. Target Consumer Demographics Psychographics Usage Behavior Consumption collection Age: 15- 60 Content Image Conscious Influenced Spending Power Youth trends Physically Active Eat Out 25% of Indians 17. Market Segmentation Strategy * RedBull avoided usual methods of marketing, relying more on what is called ‘buzz marketing’ or word-of-mouth. * Red Bull advertised directly to Generation Y , the so-called ‘millennial’: people born after 1981. * ‘ Student brand managers’ who would be used to promote Red Bull on university campuses. These students would be encouraged to throw parties at which cases of Red Bull would be distributed. 18. Corporate Strategies * Mission Statement * Our mission is to be the premier marketer and supplier of * RedBull in Asia, Europe and other parts of the globe. We will * achieve this mission by building long-term relationships with the * people who can make it become a reality. * Vision Statement: * People: Be a great place to work where people are inspired to be the best they can be. * Portfolio: Bring to the world a portfolio of quality beverage that anticipate and satisfy people’s desires and needs. * Partners: Nurture a winning network of customers and suppliers, together we create mutual, enduring value. * Profit: Maximize long-term return to shareowners while being mindful of our overall responsibilities. * Productivity: Be a highly effective, lean and fast-moving organization. 19. Brand Development Strategy * Great Strategy Begins with Great Research. * Once the brand’s core values have been identified, the road towards effective brand proposition development begins. * Development of the brand statement- commencing a Brand development strategy. 20. 21. Brand Positioning Strategy * Clear, Engaging, Unique, & Relevant to the target audience. * Able to incorporate an element of positive emotional attachment that is better than just "good†. * Echoed within business, internally and externally. * Consistent across multiple marketing & advertising mediums (print, online presence, etc). * Continually toughened within the organization so that employees consistently deliver what is promised. * Able to adapt to a changing marketplace. 22. Distribution Strategy. * Intensive distribution aims to provide saturation coverage of the market by using all available outlets such as: * Super markets, * Gyms, * Coffee Houses: Subway, Barista, Costa Coffee, Cafe Coffee Day * In n Out Convenience Stores. * Pizza Outlets. * Media Relations * Use Technology * Monitor the Web * Create Public Awareness 23. Integrated Marketing Communications Management * Sales Promotion: * Must encourage the 1 st purchase of the product in a store. * Make them aware of the product & its advantages. 24. IMC Objectives * RedBull’s IMC objective is: Sales Promotions. * Create new target markets. * Large display in the Departmental stores. * Bull Hoof stickers on the floors of departmental stores promoting RB. 25. IMC Budget 26. Internet Web site * Promotions through social networking sites such as: facebook, twitter, Hi5. * Also, Ad promos on websites such as NDTV, zoom India. 27. Media * Ad Campaigns on Prime TV channels such as NDTV good times, MTV, Channel V, Zoom, VH1, Star World & a few more. 28. Budget * Magazine: * Femina, People, Rolling Stones. * 15k per page * 12 mnths- 180,000 * Newspapers: * HT City & Delhi Times. * 1lac per page * 4 weeks * 12 mnths- 4800000 * Radio: * 10k per mnth * 12 – 120000 * TV: * 5 lacs * 4 weeks * 12 – 2400000 * Total Expense: 31,80,000 29. 30. Integrated Marketing Communication Methodologies * How do we communicate? How do customers process information? * There are many models & theories. * Thorough understanding of the audience’s needs, emotions & * activities is essential to ensure accuracy & relevance of the * message. 31. Advertising * What target market do you want to reach? * What image do you want to portray? * What product or service do you want to emphasize? * How much money can you spend? * When is the right time to advertise? * Red Bull has an aggressive marketing campaign. * Red Bull uses all the available media channels, meaning cinema, TV, radio, press and the internet. * In other words the company focuses on the media through which it reaches its primary target market-young people. * RB allows the consumers to interpret the product & the moments of use themselves. * Red Bull achieves this by a humorous and witty cartoon campaign, transferring the message that this energy drink helps you to escape by `giving you wings ?. 32. Consumer Promotions * Red Bull sponsors the motorsports or fun sports, but always where Red Bull is needed. * Red Bull does event sponsoring. * Event sponsoring attracts people’s attention towards the product and connects them. 33. Personal Selling * Sampling is another very important part of the three pillar marketing system. * As the major purpose of Red Bull is to energize the company samples at the right place at the right time, where it finds its exact target market. * Examples of usage are driving, studying, working night shifts and sports. 34. 35. Media Plan * TV: * Still a staple medium of advertising. * Allows to demonstrate the advantages of RB. * Good Reach. * Magazines: * Economical. * Provides higher brand awareness. 36. Evaluation & Control Metrics Campaign Element Metrics News Media No. of viewers of the articles Social Media No. of people using the Blogs such as Twitter, Facebook Internet & TV No. of people viewing particularly when the Ad is being aired. Print Advertisement No. Of Subscribers of those magazines, Newspapers Product Placement No.of comments (+ or – ) mentioned on social networking sites. 37. Timelines IMC/ Month Oct 09 Nov 09 Dec 09 Jan 10 Feb 10 Mar 10 Apr 10 May 10 RedBull on the Web Print Media Blogs Radio & TV Other Misc. * DARE TO BE DISCOVERED!!! 38. 39. Sources * http://www. rediff. com/money/2006/may/24drink. htm * http://www. thestudentroom. co. uk/showthread. php? t=986602 * http://www. trcb. com/business/marketing/redbull-marketing-strategy-7375. htm * http://www. drawert. com/red_bull_2. php http://energydrinks. factexpert. com/882-energy-drink-industry. php.

Pepsi-Cola Products Philippines Inc. Essay Essay Example

Pepsi Pepsi-Cola Products Philippines Inc. Essay Paper Pepsi-Cola Products Philippines Inc. Essay Paper 1. Stakeholders 1. 1. The five-year miss and the injured: – as because of this incident a five twelvemonth miss lost her life and nil is more cherished that life. 1. 2. Customers: – because people were resting their hereafters in the custodies of this figure febrility publicity run. 1. 3. Victoria Angelo. her household and households like hers: – these people who didn’t have adequate money to eat were purchasing Pepsi in the hope of altering their whole life. The rich company Pepsi was doing money by doing these people believe that they might win a batch of money. Alternatively of utilizing their scarce resources for something more existent. these people spent it on Pepsi constructing up dreams of acquiring rich and taking a good life. 1. 4. Pepsi-Cola Products Philippines Inc. : as the run was launched by Pepsi-cola. it is responsible for the results like deceases. cases. injured etc. 1. 5. Pepsi-Cola International: – as Pepsi-Cola Products Philippines Inc. is a portion of the transnational house with subdivisions all over the universe. this incident might negatively consequence the gross revenues in other states. 1. 6. PepsiCo Inc. : as it owns 19 % of the company. 1. 7. Insurance companies: – The insurance companies are affected by this incident as a batch of the Pepsi-cola autos. trucks and waggons were destroyed by the angry public and these companies might hold to pay for it. 1. 8. Rivals particularly Coca-Cola: as a consequence of this incident coca-cola might be able to snap away a immense ball of the market from Pepsi. 1. 9. Government: – It has to do certain that companies follow the Torahs and they have to protect the guiltless consumers. The authorities has to do certain illegal and unethical activities do non go on. It has to do certain that the Torahs are implemented without any exclusions. 1. 10. Judicial system in Philippines: – as it is responsible for doing certain that no misdemeanors of Torahs and ordinances go on and people who do it are dealt with in the proper mode. 1. 11. Company Employees: – they might lose their occupations as a consequence of the public violences and losingss that Pepsi had to face. 1. 12. Peoples who ran the computing machine or made the computing machine plan: as they have a important function to play in the misprinting of the Numberss. 1. 13. Banks and fiscal establishments: – although non really clear from the instance Pepsi-cola might haven taken loans form other Bankss. 1. 14. Share and Stockholders: – although non really clear from the instance. the value of the portions and stock of Pepsi-cola Company might hold fallen. 2. Ethical Issues 2. 1. Trust: – A clime of trust provides improved communicating. greater predictability. dependableness and assurance among the customer’s. employees and the company. The people trusted Pepsi to pay them the money if they would win. But Pepsi dining do that hence interrupting client trust. something one time broken is really hard to recover. 2. 2. Egoism: – the company was merely believing about its ain involvements when it launched the run. It didn’t see the hapless people who might be lured by this figure febrility and pass the small money they had on Pepsi-cola alternatively of salvaging it and utilizing for nutrient. medical specialties. instruction etc. hence harming the guiltless clients. 2. 3. Misrepresentation: – With the winning Numberss pre-selected by computing machine and merely ten 1-million-peso awards available. the opportunity of anyone going a peso millionaire was one in 28. 8 million. But Pepsi drinkers didn’t know that. The few victors got saturation media coverage. and full households spent excessive clip and attempt roll uping bottle caps. 2. 4. Larceny: – these people who didn’t have adequate money to eat were purchasing Pepsi in the hope of altering their whole life. The rich company Pepsi was doing money by doing these people believe that they might win a batch of money. Alternatively of utilizing their scarce resources for something more existent. these people spent it on Pepsi constructing up dreams of acquiring rich and taking a good life. When Pepsi refused to pay the rightful victors their rightful money. the company robbed these people of their dreams. hopes and fiscal resources. 3. The defining of Public felicity a. There was possibly a small coaction of private public assistance and public good. The company was giving out prises valuing up to 1 million to people. Although the company intended to derive more market portion through this action. it besides helped people acquire more money and live a better life. On the other manus it was besides private public assistance as merely a smattering people truly profited from this action. Merely these few were able to take a better life and the bulk was left out B. Yes I think it is an appropriate good as one can non ever do material for the public good. It is non ever possible to make good for all on a big graduated table. You need a batch of resources. power to transport out actions on such a big graduated table. Alternatively it would be better to assist groups. households and single. This is comparatively easy to make and consequently a batch of people will profit from such actions. c. What should hold been otherwise I. Truth: – the company should hold told the truth in the advertizements. that the opportunity to win the game is highly little. This would assist particularly the hapless people in doing the more reasonable and invert their money in things what they truly need. two. Trust: – the company should hold tried to recover trust of the people by explicating to them that the error was non on intent and that they neer intended to ache people’s feelings. three. Consequences: – The Company should hold besides tried to explicate to the people that if Pepsi would pay the $ 18 billion to the people. so the company would travel broke and would hold to shut. This would ensue in 1000s of people fring their occupations. four. Government: – it should do certain that people understand such runs and don’t get seduced by such empty promises through better control over what the companies precisely advertise and what they do. d. Yes Pepsi was justified in non paying the full 1 million pesos: Doing that would intend that Pepsi would hold to pay a sum of more than $ 18 billion. a amount that would decidedly take to the company acquiring bankrupt. As a consequence of this 1000s of people would lose their occupations non merely in Philippines but besides in other parts of the universe where Pepsi operates as the Whole Pepsi administration would be affected by this immense loss. The portion and stock holder might lose a batch of money as a consequence of this loss at Pepsi. Thus it is a really complicated and damaging concatenation reaction that would be set of into action if Pepsi paid the money. Pepsi made a error in publishing the Numberss. something it did non mean to make. It kept its promise of giving out the 1 million to people who had the Numberss but now you can’t anticipate the company to pay $ 18 billion because of an honorable error. Everyone makes errors. e. Europe: – The response would hold been different as the people in Europe are non that hapless and populate a good life. They are non that desperate. They are besides good educated and understand such runs. South America and Africa: – the response might hold been similar to that in Philippines as the people are hapless and are despairing to hold money. Most of the people are non good educated and therefore don’t truly understand such runs. Asia: – the response here might be non that aggressive as in Philippine as the people are good educated and although besides being hapless they live in extremely developing states for illustration India. China etc. that are invariably attractive immense investings from around the universe. Multinational companies are constructing immense mills here and are outsourcing their maps in these states. As such the people are non that desperate. f. The houses offer was OK. it could hold offered some more money. but whatever it might hold offered it would hold neer been plenty for the people. The company had to believe about all its stockholders and paying the full sum would hold damaged batch of them for illustration Insurance companies. Company Employees. Banks and fiscal establishments. Share and Stockholders etc. It was in the best involvement of everyone for the company to pay 500 pesos and non the full 1 million. 4. What would I make? Probably the ethical rules violated have to make with trust that they would maintain their word. ( wage for victors ) even if it weren’t profitable. I don’t believe the ads said anything about conditions of payment are merely if they ‘choose the correct. low chance figure to guarantee low payoff’ . It seems besides that they need their clients. peculiarly since Coke clients will non be affected by Pepsi-Philippines determination non to pay off. I would do certain that the advertizements would advert the hazards and possibilities of winning. The people would be cognizant of the fact that it is really hard to win. This would assist a individual non to put all his hopes and resources in something that is itself a dream. I would besides seek to explicate to the people that if Pepsi would pay the $ 18 billion to the people. so the company would travel broke and would hold to shut. This would ensue in 1000s of people fring their occupations. I would seek to keep the good will of the clients. The jutting $ loss from loss in repute may be worse than paying the awards. Simply from a concern and ethical position. I would hold done something really rapidly to keep the good will of the clients one time I knew of the error. I would hold tried to recover trust of the people by explicating to them that the error was non on intent and that the company neer intended to ache people’s feelings. Possibly in Hong Kong the consequences would hold been less extremist or violent. However that wouldn’t mean that the company wasn’t merely as incorrect for their short-sightedness and sloppiness. Their sloppiness led to force and decease. Something should hold been done otherwise. Yes. 5. Application of to instance 5. 1. Personal Traits: Business determinations are made by persons or by commissions. therefore the moralss of concern in world is the moralss of the persons doing up the concern. A series of factors influence a individuals moralss: personal values. phase of moral development and moral approbation. The extent to which a determination maker’s behavior reflects personal values depends to some extent on the determination maker’s self-importance strength. field dependance and venue of control. There the Pepsi-cola company is a large participant with a batch of power which can take to high self-importance strength and venue of control. This might do the company to travel its ain manner and put incorrect criterions and usage questionable methods. Phases of development depict the type of principle used to choose options. Moral approbation characterizes the internal demand for blessing something that is barely present in large companies. Each of these traits either supports ethical or unethical behav ior. 5. 2. Stakeholders: A stakeholder is person who has a interest in an organisation or a plan. Stakeholders either impact the organization/program or are affected by it. Stakeholders include people who staff a plan ( e. g. . direction. staff ) ; people who are affected by a plan ( e. g. . clients. their households. and the community ) ; people who contribute to a plan in other ways ( e. g. . subscribers. support bureaus and foundations. voluntaries. spouse organisations. board members. etc. ) ; and people with a vested involvement in the plan ( e. g. . politicians. neighbours. etc. ) . rivals. providers etc. The company did non take into consideration the effects of this run on peculiarly its consumers. The Stakeholders influence determinations in both ethical and unethical waies. 5. 3. Organizational Culture and Traits It might be referred to as the common set of premises. beliefs and values that has developed within the administration to get by with the external and internal environment and that is passed on to new members to steer their actions within these environments. It provides a sense of individuality among members and promotes a committedness of the members to something larger than ego. It besides provides for stableness of the organizational societal system and principle and way for behavior. While organizational civilization serves as the overall gum of the administration specific facets of its civilization are influenced by the organizational traits for e. g. organizational clime and organizational ends etc. 3. 4. Dimensions of Decision Making The Decision Processes aid to explicate the types of ethical determination doing behaviors that occur in concern. Directors indicate there are specific actions that they will non permit – therefore. the minimal public presentation regulation. Once a set of determination options has been established. each one is evaluated on the bases of the Decision dimensions like economic. political. technological. societal and ethical issues. These issues are responsible at the terminal about the ethical nature of the determination. 3. 5. Moral Intensity The grade of moral strength influences the determination maker’s determinations. A individual with a high moral strength is tend to see moral and ethical issues more profoundly than a individual who’s moral strength lies really low. 3. 6. Minimal Performance Level/ Total Benefit Test The determination shaper applies a minimal public presentation regulation to each of the determinations that specifies the minimal acceptable public presentation degree for each of the determination dimensions. Any alternate that creates a struggle of involvement will be dropped from consideration. The minimal public presentation degree might be less than the coveted degree and when considered by itself would take to rejection of the option. Decisions Alternatives that survive the Minimum Performance Level regulation trial may so be subjected to the 2nd stage. entire benefit giving the overall value of each option. After the benefit for each determination variable has being considered has been derived. one would anticipate that the determination shaper would choose the option with the highest benefit. 6. Lessons Critical for organisations that are endeavoring to derive or keep a competitory advantage and that are in the procedure of re-structuring for the new century. Decision-making is an of import factor for turning organisational memory with freshly created cognition and a broader base of positions to utilize in subsequent decision-making state of affairss. Give a peculiar determination context and a determination shaper with a set of personal values. it may be really hard to see all sides of the issue. Individual. managerial and organizational success all depend on doing the right determinations at the right times. 1 However. decision-making is merely one constituent of the problem-solving procedure. Unless a job has been defined and its root causes identified. directors are improbable to be able to do an appropriate determination about how to work out it. Effective directors know how to garner and measure information that clarifies a job. They know the value of bring forthing more than one action option and weighing all the deductions of a program before make up ones minding to implement it. A major duty for all directors is to keep a changeless sentinel for existent or possible jobs. Directors do this by maintaining channels of communicating unfastened and monitoring. When a job involves others. they need to experience understood and accepted ; they must hold assurance that the job can be resolved ; they must swear direction to see the job as a learning experience and non as an alibi to penalize person. Whether blameworthy or non. the usage of the cloak of societal duty. and the bunk spoken in its name by influential and esteemed business communities. does clearly harm the foundations of a free society. I have been impressed clip and once more by the schizophrenic character of many business communities. They are capable of being highly far-sighted and clear-headed in affairs that are internal to their concerns. They are improbably short-sighted and muddle-headed in affairs that are outside their concerns but affect the possible endurance of concern in general. But the philosophy of â€Å"social responsibility† taken earnestly would widen the range of the political mechanism to every human activity. It does non differ in doctrine from the most explicitly corporate philosophy. It differs merely by professing to believe that collectivized terminals can be attained without leftist agencies. The societal duty of concern is to utilize its resources and prosecute in activities designed to increase its net incomes so long as it stays within the regulations of the game. which is to state. engages in unfastened and free competition without misrepresentation or fraud.

Need for Speed Reading 10 Hacks to Help You

Need for Speed Reading 10 Hacks to Help You No matter what your major, it’s likely you have between 50-200 pages of reading to get through every night of the week. Especially, when the end of semester is coming, with final exams and projects ahead. For those of us who are slow readers, that can be pretty daunting, especially considering that there are lots of other things that have to be done (think â€Å"laundry† and â€Å"cooking macaroni.†) Did you know there are actually ways that you can improve your reading and retention speed without buying some weird As-Seen-On-TV program? Here are the best speed-reading hacks that actually work. Scan for keywords Look for keywords and new vocabulary, which are usually in bold or italics. Then, read the sentence before and after. You’ll have a better idea of the overall gist of what is happening and be a leg up for the quiz. 10-Second Rule Skim through each page for a maximum of 10 seconds, looking only for the main ideas of the page. When you get to an idea that is new or that seems important, stop and spend another 10 seconds re-reading that section. Summarizing For each page of your book, take a minute and write one or two sentences that help you organize the main ideas of the page. You can even write them at the bottom of the page. This is a great help for when you are trying to find information to study at the end of the semester. First and Last Sentences A great way to get the gist of a paragraph quickly is to only focus on the first and last sentences. That’s where you are going to get 90% of the meat of the content. The rest is mostly filler. Look for Visual Markers Some text is more important than others, and it will show up on your test. Any text that is bold, highlighted, in a box, or a different color is text that is trying to get your attention. Also look for bullets, numbered lists, or any text that â€Å"pops† out from the rest of the page. Numbers Unless you’re reading a math textbook, numbers and statistics are a good thing to stop and look at. Not only are they often included in tests (think years in your History classes), but they will make you look smarter in discussions. How many other people will remember the exact percentage of women holding Congress positions? Color Mark Although highlighting is not a very effective solution generally, it can be helpful if you use it effectively. Instead of using highlighters, though, invest in a pack of colorful mini-sticky notes. Then, as you scan through your textbook, mark your pages with the color that matches. Here’s a good system: Green – Got it! You understand the ideas on the page. Yellow – Some ideas that need to be reviewed. Red – Come back to this page in more depth. Blue – This item WILL BE ON THE TEST. Sentence Snapshot Some of the best research on speed-reading has to do with how you look at the page. Instead of being trapped by word-by-word reading from left to right, try to take a mental snapshot of the whole sentence. Although you might not think you’re getting information, your brain captures and processes even while you’ve moved on to a new sentence. Study Early Speed-reading takes focus and concentration, and that’s the found most often in the early morning. Instead of trying to skim and remember late at night, wake up early. Your brain is primed to comprehend better when it’s not quite so exhausted. Stop Talking To Yourself Subvocalization is the act of internally saying words to yourself, and it has been shown to slow down reading speed. It is also connected with comprehension. While you are skimming your textbooks, eliminate most of your subvocalization – except when you come to something that is vital to be understood. Then, you can subvocalize or vocalize as much as is needed to understand the new concept. As you practice using these speed-reading hacks, you will be able to get through your texts faster without sacrificing your ability to comprehend the material. Just keep looking for what’s important. Keep fluff out of your head and in the dryer where it belongs. Have any speed reading tips to share? Want to leave your feedback? Welcome to the comments below!

Case Analysis - Political Interaction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Case Analysis - Political Interaction - Essay Example nstitution; however, there are multiple restrictions, in form of regulations limiting how lobbyists can appeal national administration for the reparation of criticisms(Ramanna et. al, 2015). Breaking the set rules, even for the corporations guarantees serious consequences including prison sentences. Nonetheless, corporate management is among the core facilitators of financing and lobbying the government; playing roles that have positive and negative influences. Among the core roles of corporate management, lies in campaign finance that entails distribution of available financial resources as contributions and expenditures throughout the campaigning period. Typically, most of the candidates agree that tackling this successfully depends on prominent determinants such as an understanding of the geography and having excellent strategies(Ramanna et. al, 2015). However, without corporate management, most of the executed approaches eventually fail. Corporate management, even outside financing and lobbying the government has most of the practices based on implementation and execution of the best strategies. Resultantly, it enhances the effectiveness of strategies and also comes ups with approaches on handling the expenses relative to campaign finance i.e. salary for the staff and consultants, rented properties, advertisement and purchasing of the utilities. Moreover, in most cases, corporate management applies in reduction of these expenses throug h review and development of better campaigning strategies(Ramanna et. al, 2015). Typically, corporate management enables a significant percentage of campaign efficiency through the inclusion of protocols, policies, approaches and other practices that are mostly prevalent in the corporate world. On the other hand, corporate management has a negative influence through relative practices in financing and lobbying for the government. In fact, most of the critics and negative perceptions of campaign finance and lobbying have the

The Customer Analysis and Market Segmentation Essay

The Customer Analysis and Market Segmentation - Essay Example The study shows that producers need to create commodities on high demand thus, the need to make potential estimates. While marketing industrial grinding machinery, a marketer will have to make four decisions, which include; the pricing decisions, the product decisions, the placing decisions and the promotion decisions. Under the product decisions, the marketer will first have to decide on the quality, brand name, and functionality of the machinery. Depending on the potential estimates made and the potential customers being targeted, the standards set can be high or low. Marketers need to consider this because for instance; some brand names will appeal to some customers while to others they may not make any sense at all. The pricing decisions are highly critical since they determine the profit-making of the organization. The marketer should ensure that the price set is in accordance with the potential estimates made. Prices should not be exceptionally high since this may cause custome rs to shift to the competitors. In making this decision, marketers should evaluate the prices of other grinders in the market. The marketer also has to decide whether discounts will be issued on the machinery or not (Pride & Ferrell, 2011). Under the placing decisions, the marketer has to decide on the distribution of the grinding machinery. Depending on the potential estimates made concerning the market available, the marketer has to decide which places to distribute the product and which to be left idle. Transportation decisions also have to be considered, and the number of distribution channels. However, most distribution centers should be placed where a wide potential market has been identified. Promotion decisions include the various ways in which the marketer can market the product. Different marketers will use different strategies of marketing a product depending on its type. For instance, marketing grinding machinery would need a method such as personal selling to ensure tha t the customer is totally made aware of the product and its functioning. However, other methods of marketing such as advertising might leave some information about the product. 2) What is the relationship among market segmentation, target marketing, and positioning? What will happen to a company’s target marketing and positioning efforts if markets are incorrectly or not effectively/insightfully segmented? Market segmentation refers to the division of the customers of a product in different groups. Customers will mainly be divided depending on their needs, their characteristics and their financial ability. While segmenting the market, the marketer also has to consider the organization’s ability to satisfy all the segments and the competitive advantage of each segment. Other factors that have to be considered in evaluating the segmentation includes; the costs of the product and the sales estimates (Pride & Ferrell, 2011). Once the business has divided its market into di fferent segments, it then evaluates the potential gains of each market and then chooses which to concentrate on. This process is referred to as target marketing. The market chosen is then referred to as the target market.

Workplace Violence in Health Institutions Term Paper

Workplace Violence in Health Institutions - Term Paper Example These guidelines include recommendations for recognizing risk factors, management commitment and employee involvement, work site analysis, hazard prevention and control, and safety and health training. Violence against Health Workers The levels of violence against healthcare staff have become a concern in recent years. More and more healthcare staffs face the prospect of violence and aggression in the workplace, not only from the people they care for, but from strangers and families. Although there is a high risk of work place violence across all healthcare occupations, most indicators suggest that it is the nursing profession that is most at risk, followed closely by ambulance and medical staff. (Linsley, 2006, pgs. 7-8) nurses are especially vulnerable to violence in high risk areas of practice such as the emergency department and psychatric settings (Dempski & Westrick, 2008, pg. 237) This paper seeks to addreses the spectrum of violent behaviors in health care, including violence directed horizontally or vertically between healthcare providers or violence focused on nurses from patients, families, and visitors. In addition, it will give a brief explanation of the types of violence experienced by nurses at their place of work, the risk factors, the various ways through which workplace violence affects the workers as well as the steps and measures which can be undertaken to reduce the impact and effects of workplace violence or minimize their chances of occurence and reoccurance. Types of Violence in Healthcare Settings Healthcare and social service workers for many years have confronted significant risks of job-related violence. Assaults in particular represent serious safety threats and health hazards for this field, and violence against... Healthcare and social service workers for many years have confronted significant risks of job-related violence. Assaults in particular represent serious safety threats and health hazards for this field, and violence against their workers increasingly continues to manifest. Healthcare settings are at risk for a variety of violent behaviours. Violence may be manifested as verbal abuse, sexual harassment, racial harassment, bullying, property damage, threats, murder, and physical assault. In 2000, almost half of all nonfatal injuries from violent acts against workers occurred in the healthcare sector. These injuries include, bruises, lacerations, broken bones, and head injuries. There are also other forms of violence such as lateral and horizontal violence which frequently occur in healthcare agencies. Lateral violence is a form of bullying, nurse to nurse, and is usually directed toward nursing staff perceived as less powerful. This includes bullying which encompasses barrage behaviour s which include being harassed, tormented, ignored, sabotaged, put down, and insulted among others. This form of violence is tolerated because many nurses experience it as a rite of passage and regard it as normal.Risk Factors. Health care providers, especially so, nurses deal with a greater than before risk of work-related physical attack. A number of factors have been identified as causal factors, while they do not cause violence directly, they have an impact on it and can enhance its effects.  

La Importancia De La Toma Decisiones

La Importancia De La Toma Decisiones INTRODUCCIà ³N Esta breve introduccià ³n nos servirà ¡ para apreciar la importancia de la toma decisiones, y entender de quà © manera repercute en el logro de objetivos. Presenta etapas mediante las cuales se pueden desarrollar decisiones eficientes, diariamente realizamos decisiones ya sea en el à ¡mbito laboral, personal, etc. En el CAPITULO I, se tratara de la toma de decisiones, su definicià ³n, caracterà ­sticas, funciones, condiciones en las que surge, etapas y desarrollo de alternativas, solucià ³n limitante y evaluacià ³n de problemas. En el CAPITULO II, se desarrollarà ¡ los tipos bà ¡sicos de decisiones, tipos de problemas, tipos de soluciones, decisiones rutinarias, decisiones adaptativas, decisiones de innovacià ³n, decisiones programadas y no programadas. En el CAPITULO III, se hablarà ¡ de los modelos de la toma de decisiones, modelo racional, modelo racional limitado y modelo polà ­tico Y en el CAPITULO IV, contiene la toma de decisiones pero a nivel de grupo, importancia de la toma de decisiones en grupo y como lograr que funcione la toma de decisiones en grupo, la cual se basa en el apoyo de todos los miembros para lograr una mayor eficiencia en la decisià ³n elegida. CAPITULO I I. TOMA DE DECISIONES 1.1 DEFINICIà ³N: Las personas realizamos toma de decisiones todos los dà ­as, ya sea en el à ¡mbito laboral, personal, econà ³mico, etc. Es de vital importancia ya que elegimos un camino, entre las diferentes opciones que se puedan presentar en busca de lograr un objetivo o alcanzar nuestra meta previamente predeterminada. Harol Koonts y Heinz Weihrich en su libro Administracià ³n una perspectiva global definen la toma de decisiones de la siguiente manera: La toma de decisiones es la seleccià ³n de un curso de accià ³n entre varias Alternativas, y constituye por lo tanto la esencia de la planeacià ³n.[1] Estamos de acuerdo con lo planteado por los autores ya que para tomar decisiones se tiene que analizar previamente diversas alternativas, ademà ¡s no puede decirse que exista una planeacià ³n sino se ha tomado una decisià ³n. Asà ­ tambià ©n cabe mencionar que en el à ¡mbito empresarial las personas que toman decisiones son los administradores, la cual consideran de vital importancia en el desarrollo de su trabajo. En toda situacià ³n que se pueda presentar en nuestra vida cotidiana para realizar una toma de decisiones y esta sea eficiente se tiene que hacer un anà ¡lisis de las alternativas minuciosa ya que el à ©xito o el fracaso depende de la decisià ³n que adoptemos , por ello es recomendable que para tomar una decisià ³n y esta sea lo mà ¡s acertada posible, es primordial realizar todas las etapas de la toma de decisiones: Clasificacià ³n del problema, condiciones que tiene que satisfacer la respuesta al problema, decidir sobre lo que es correcto, en lugar de sobre lo que es aceptable, incluir dentro de la decisià ³n las acciones que hay que llevar a cabo, establecer el control que comprueba la validez y la eficacia de la decisià ³n en relacià ³n con el estado actual de los hechos. La toma de decisiones a nivel individual es caracterizada por que una persona haga uso de su razonamiento y pensamiento para elegir una decisià ³n a un problema que se le presente en la vida; es decir, si una persona tiene un problema, à ©sta deberà ¡ ser capaz de resolverlo individualmente a travà ©s de tomar decisiones con ese especifico motivo. En la toma de decisiones importa la eleccià ³n de un camino a seguir, por lo que en un estadio anterior deben evaluarse alternativas de accià ³n. Si estas à ºltimas no està ¡n presentes, no existirà ¡ decisià ³n. Para tomar una decisià ³n, no importa su naturaleza, es necesario conocer, comprender, analizar un problema, para asà ­ poder darle solucià ³n; en algunos casos por ser tan simples y cotidianos, este proceso se realiza de forma implà ­cita y se soluciona muy rà ¡pidamente, pero existen otros casos en los cuales las consecuencias de una mala o buena eleccià ³n puede tener repercusiones en la vida y si es en un contexto laboral en el à ©xito o fracaso de la organizacià ³n, para los cuales es necesario realizar un proceso mà ¡s estructurado que puede dar mà ¡s seguridad e informacià ³n para resolver el problema. Gracias a las decisiones podemos tener una opinià ³n crà ­tica. La manera mà ¡s adecuada de proceder a la hora de tomar decisiones en una empresa es analizar la situacià ³n desde todos los puntos de vista posibles. Despuà ©s es necesario actuar con seguridad y conviccià ³n. Independientemente tambià ©n de cuà ¡l sea nuestra posicià ³n en la empresa, podemos solicitar la cooperacià ³n de los demà ¡s, y agradecer sus ideas. Hay que saber lo que puede rendir cada empleado, cuà ¡les son las obligaciones que tiene y exigirle que las cumpla, pero siempre con educacià ³n y asertividad, conductas que indican seguridad en nuestra capacidad de liderazgo y confianza en las competencias de los demà ¡s. Tanto la toma de decisiones como la organizacià ³n laboral se asientan en la facultad de delegar. No se trata de dar mà ¡s trabajo o responsabilidad a los subordinados, sino mejor trabajo, con el fin de que todos nos centremos en lo que es valioso para la empresa. La delegacià ³n evidencia el à ©xito directivo si va acompaà ±ada de un buen criterio de seleccià ³n, formacià ³n y refuerzo. La toma de decisiones en una organizacià ³n se circunscribe a una serie de personas que està ¡n apoyando el mismo proyecto. Debemos empezar por hacer una seleccià ³n de decisiones, y esta seleccià ³n es una de las tareas de gran trascendencia. Con frecuencia se dice que las decisiones son algo asà ­ como el motor de los negocios y en efecto, de la adecuada seleccià ³n de alternativas depende en gran parte el à ©xito de cualquier organizacià ³n. Para los administradores, el proceso de toma de decisià ³n es sin duda una de las mayores responsabilidades, ya que ellos consideran a veces la toma de decisiones como su trabajo principal, porque constantemente tienen que decidir lo que debe hacerse, quià ©n ha de hacerlo, cuà ¡ndo y dà ³nde, y en ocasiones hasta cà ³mo se harà ¡. Sin embargo, la toma de decisiones sà ³lo es un paso de la planeacià ³n, incluso cuando se hace con rapidez y dedicà ¡ndole poca atencià ³n o cuando influye sobre la accià ³n sà ³lo durante unos minutos. Se presentan a continuacià ³n algunas definiciones clà ¡sicas de los procesos que se dan en la toma de decisiones y que pueden aclarar de forma importante una serie de procesos de toma de decisiones, que es una parte de la resolucià ³n de problemas: Decisiones: Son combinaciones de situaciones y conductas que pueden ser descritas en tà ©rminos de tres componentes esenciales: acciones alternativas, consecuencias y sucesos inciertos. Resultado: Son situaciones describibles pà ºblicamente que ocurrirà ­an cuando se llevan a cabo las conductas alternativas que se han generado. Como todas las situaciones son dinà ¡micas y suponen que si se continà ºa la toma de accià ³n el resultado puede variar. Consecuencias: Son las reacciones evaluativas subjetivas, medidas en tà ©rminos de bueno o malo, ganancias o pà ©rdidas, asociadas con cada resultado. Incertidumbre: Se refiere a los juicios de quien toma la decisià ³n de la propensià ³n de cada suceso de ocurrir. Se describe con medidas que incluyen probabilidad, confianza, y posibilidad Preferencias: Son conductas expresivas de elegir, o intenciones de elegir, un curso de accià ³n sobre otros. Tomar una decisià ³n: Se refiere al proceso entero de elegir un curso de accià ³n. Juicio: Son los componentes del proceso de decisià ³n que se refieren a valorar, estimar, inferir que sucesos ocurrirà ¡n y cuà ¡les serà ¡n las reacciones evaluativas del que toma la decisià ³n en los resultados que obtenga. Segà ºn estas definiciones el proceso de toma de decisiones serà ­a encontrar una conducta adecuada para una situacià ³n en la que hay una serie de sucesos inciertos. La eleccià ³n de la situacià ³n ya es un elemento que puede entrar en el proceso. Hay que elegir los elementos que son relevantes y obviar los que no lo son y analizar las relaciones entre ellos. Una vez determinada cual es la situacià ³n, para tomar decisiones es necesario elaborar acciones alternativas, para imaginar la situacià ³n final y evaluar los resultados teniendo en cuenta la incertidumbre de cada resultado y su valor. Asà ­ se obtiene una imagen de las consecuencias que tendrà ­a cada una de las acciones alternativas que se han definido. De acuerdo con las consecuencias se asocia a la situacià ³n la conducta mà ¡s idà ³nea eligià ©ndola como curso de accià ³n. 1.2 CARACTERISTICAS DE LA TOMA DE DECISIONES Las caracterà ­sticas mà ¡s importantes en la toma de decisiones son: 1. Efectos futuros: Tiene que ver con la medida en que los compromisos relacionados con la decisià ³n que tomemos afectarà ¡n el futuro. Una decisià ³n que implica mucha influencia a largo plazo, puede ser considerada una decisià ³n de alto nivel ya que debemos de analizarla y concluir con la decisià ³n que tomemos a futuro, mientras que una decisià ³n con efectos a corto plazo puede ser tomada a un nivel muy inferior ya que a la conclusià ³n que lleguemos serà ¡ para ser realizada de manera inmediata. 2. Reversibilidad: Se refiere a la velocidad con que una decisià ³n puede revertirse y la dificultad que implica hacer este cambio. Si revertir es difà ­cil, se recomienda tomar la decisià ³n a un nivel alto; que sea a largo plazo pero si revertir es fà ¡cil, se requiere tomar la decisià ³n a un nivel bajo, se realizarà ¡ a corto plazo. 3. Impacto: Esta caracterà ­stica se refiere a la medida en que otras à ¡reas o actividades se ven afectadas. Si el impacto es extensivo, es indicado tomar la decisià ³n a un nivel alto; un impacto à ºnico se asocia con una decisià ³n tomada a un nivel bajo. 4. Calidad: Este factor se refiere a las relaciones laborales, valores à ©ticos, consideraciones legales, principios bà ¡sicos de conducta, imagen de la compaà ±Ãƒ ­a, etc. Si muchos de estos factores està ¡n involucrados, se requiere tomar la decisià ³n a un nivel alto; si solo algunos factores son relevantes, se recomienda tomar la decisià ³n a un nivel bajo. 1.3 FUNCION DE LA TOMA DE DECISIONES Los fundamentos de la toma de decisiones, los cuales comprenden definir problemas, recopilar datos, generar opciones y elegir un curso de accià ³n. Analizaremos la forma en que gerentes y empleados pueden abordar diversos tipos de decisiones con base en la naturaleza del problema que hay que resolver, las posibles soluciones a la mano y el grado de riesgo implà ­cito. Loa gerentes eficaces se basan en varias competencias gerenciales para tomar e instrumentar sus decisiones. A su vez, la toma de decisiones es la base de casi todas las competencias gerenciales. 1.4 CONDICIONES EN LA TOMA DE DECISIONES Las circunstancias en que los individuos toman decisiones reciben el influjo de desarrollos y acontecimientos que ellos no controlan, pero los cuales podrà ­an repercutir a futuro en los resultados de lo que hayan decidido. La decisiones se ven influidas por fuerzas que van desde las nuevas tecnologà ­as o el ingreso de nuevos competidores a un mercado hasta las nuevas leyes o las agitaciones polà ­ticas. Ademà ¡s de identificar y medir la magnitud de estas fuerzas, los gerentes deben estimar su posible impacto. Las circunstancias en que se toman decisiones se clasifican en tà ©rminos de certidumbre, riesgo e incertidumbre. Cuando los individuos identifican desarrollos y acontecimientos y el posible impacto de estos con un elevado grado de seguridad, toman decisiones en condiciones de certidumbre. Cuando la informacià ³n escasea y es ambigua, la toma de decisiones se realiza en condiciones de riesgo. En esta situacià ³n, las personas basan sus decisiones en probabilidades objetivas (claras) o subjetivas (intuiciones y juicios). La condicià ³n de incertidumbre significa que los individuos cuentan con escasa o nula informacià ³n sobre acontecimientos y fuerzas para basar una decisià ³n. Por la incertidumbre los responsables de la toma de decisiones quizà ¡ solo puedan hacer suposiciones razonables de los posibles resultados de la decisià ³n. CERTIDUMBRE Hellriegel, Weihrich (2002) expresaron:: La certidumbre es la condicià ³n en la cual los individuos està ¡n completamente informados del problema, se conocen soluciones alternas y los resultados de cada solucià ³n son predecibles por completo. En condiciones de certidumbre, la gente al menos prevà © (si no es que controla) los hechos y consecuencias. Esta condicià ³n significa que se conoce en forma cabal y està ¡n definidos con claridad tanto el problema como las soluciones alternas. Una vez que el individuo identifica soluciones opcionales y los resultados que cabe esperar de estas, tomar la decisià ³n es un tanto sencillo, y quien lo hace solo elige la solucià ³n que arroje el mejor resultado posible. La toma de decisiones en condiciones de certidumbre es la excepcià ³n para la mayorà ­a de los gerentes y otros profesionales. Sin embargo, los de primera là ­nea toman decisiones todos los dà ­as en dichas condiciones, o casi. Por ejemplo, un aumento en el trà ¡nsito de paquetes cerca de un periodo vacacional puede obligar a un gerente de primera là ­nea en el centro de Fedex en Memphis, Tennessee, a pedir a 10 empleados que trabajen dos horas de tiempo extra. El gerente determina el costo de las horas extras con toda certidumbre. Tambià ©n anticipa con cierta certeza la cantidad de paquetes adicionales que se procesaran. De este modo, los costos laborales reales del manejo de la paqueterà ­a pueden calcularse con una seguridad relativa antes de programar las horas extras. RIESGO El riesgo es la condicià ³n en que los individuos definen un problema, especifican la probabilidad de ciertos hechos, identifican soluciones alternas y exponen la probabilidad de que cada solucià ³n de los resultados deseados. El riesgo en general significa que el problema y las soluciones opcionales ocupan un punto intermedio entre los extremos que representan la certidumbre y el carà ¡cter desacostumbrado y ambiguo de la incertidumbre. La probabilidad es el porcentaje de veces en que ocurrirà ­a cierto resultado si el individuo tomara muchas veces la misma decisià ³n. El ejemplo de la probabilidad mà ¡s comà ºn es cuando unos lanza al aire una moneda: al cabo de los lanzamientos suficientes, el 50 por ciento de las veces aparecerà ¡ cara y el 50 por ciento restantes cruces. Las aseguradoras recurren mucho al concepto de probabilidad para todo tipo de primas. La calidad de la informacià ³n de que se dispone un individuo sobre la condicià ³n adecuada para tomar decisiones varà ­a mucho, lo mismo que las estimaciones de riesgo que realice. El tipo, monto y confiabilidad de la informacià ³n influyen en el nivel de riesgo y en el hecho de si el responsable de tomar la decisià ³n puede basarse en probabilidades objetivas o subjetivas para calcular el resultado. Probabilidad Objetiva Es la posibilidad de que ocurra determinado resultado con base en hechos ya existentes y cifras concretas, En ocasiones, es posible estimar el resultado probable de una decisià ³n examinando registros anteriores. Por ejemplo, aunque Allstate, Famers y otras compaà ±Ãƒ ­as de seguros de vida no pueden determina el aà ±o en que morirà ¡ cada asegurado, calculan probabilidades objetivas de que ciertos asegurados, de diversas categorà ­as de edad, fenezcan en un aà ±o en particular. Estas probabilidades objetivas se fundan en la expectativa de que los à ­ndices de mortalidad prevalecientes en el pasado se repitan en el futuro Probabilidad Subjetiva Es la apreciacià ³n basada en juicios y opiniones personales de que ocurra un resultado en particular. Tales juicios varà ­an de un individuo a otro, dependiendo de su intuicià ³n, experiencia en situaciones similares, conocimientos y rasgos de personalidad (por ejemplo, preferencia por correr o evitar riesgos) Don Dembo es presidente del consejo de administracià ³n y director general de Algorithmics, Inc., y toda una autoridad en riesgos empresariales. Su empresa vende software aplicaciones con nombres como Risk Watch y Risk Mapper a bancos, aseguradoras y otras compaà ±Ãƒ ­as que necesitan asistencia para medir y manejar sus riesgos financieros. Sus comentarios vienen muy bien a colacià ³n con la toma de decisiones en condiciones de riesgo dentro de un marco de probabilidades subjetivas: Ahora el mundo es mà ¡s riesgoso porque todo està ¡ mucho mà ¡s interconectadoSi usted no maneja riesgos, no afirme que administra o gerencia un negocioManejar riesgos significa pensar en el futuro, no en el pasado. Algunas de las mejores mentes para los negocios subestiman este aspecto. Todos nos sentimos a gusto basando nuestras estrategias a futuro en el pasado. Esta es la razà ³n por la que los riesgos que no anticipamos pueden tomarnos por sorpresa- y porque resulta tan difà ­cil tener en cuenta sucesos para los que no hay precedentes. INCERTIDUMBRE La incertidumbre es la condicià ³n en que un individuo no dispone de la informacià ³n necesaria para asignar probabilidades a los resultados de las soluciones alternas. De hecho, quizà ¡ la persona este imposibilitada incluso para definir es problema, y ni hablar de que identifique soluciones alternar son ambiguos e inusuales. Enfrentar la incertidumbre es una de las facetas mà ¡s importantes de la labor de muchos gerentes y otros profesionales como los ingenieros en investigacià ³n y desarrollo, los investigadores de mercado y los planificadores de estrategias. Para absorber la incertidumbre, los gerentes, equipos y otros profesionales necesitan a menudo recurrir a su intuicià ³n, creatividad y toda la informacià ³n disponible para juzgar el curso de accià ³n (la decisià ³n) que deben seguir. Fuente: Hellriegel, Weihrich (2002), Administracià ³n un enfoque basado en competencias. 1.5 ETAPAS DE LA TOMA DE DECISIONES: Segà ºn Harvard Bussiness la toma de decisiones, para que sean mà ¡s eficientes deben pasar previamente por las siguientes etapas: Clasificacià ³n del problema.  ¿Se trata de un problema genà ©rico?  ¿Es excepcional y à ºnico? Definicià ³n del problema.  ¿Con que nos tenemos que enfrentar? Condiciones que tiene que satisfacer la respuesta al problema.  ¿Cuà ¡les son las condiciones de campo que delimitan el problema? Decidir sobre lo que es correcto, en lugar de sobre lo que es aceptable, con objeto de cumplir las condiciones de campo.  ¿Quà © es lo que satisfacerà ¡ totalmente a las condiciones antes de que se consideren los compromisos, adaptaciones y concesiones necesarias para hacer la decisià ³n aceptable? Incluir dentro de la decisià ³n las acciones que hay que llevar a cabo.  ¿En quà © consisten las acciones que hay que realizar?  ¿Quià ©n las tiene que conocer? Establecer el control que comprueba la validez y la eficacia de la decisià ³n en relacià ³n con el estado actual de los hechos  ¿Cà ³mo se està ¡ llevando a cabo la decisià ³n?  ¿Son adecuados u obsoletos los supuestos en los que se basa? Clasificacià ³n del problema: Consiste en ordenar de manera que resulte mà ¡s fà ¡cil para las personas dar solucià ³n, ya que el problema puede tener un grado excepcional o à ºnico. Siempre hay que tratar en gran medida de contestar a lo genà ©rico mediante una regla o un principio, pero el problema excepcional solo se le puede dar solucià ³n de la manera que se crea conveniente. Existe el suceso autà ©nticamente genà ©rico, que consiste en que un acontecimiento individual lo à ºnico que representa es un sà ­ntoma. Estos problemas surgen en su gran mayorà ­a en las organizaciones, en la parte de produccià ³n. En la cual no se toman decisiones sino se tratan de adaptaciones. Suceso autà ©nticamente excepcional, aquà ­ se quiere conocer si se trata de una excepcià ³n de verdad o solo de una manifestacià ³n de un genero nuevo. Definicià ³n del problema: Una vez que se ha identificado o clasificado el problema es mà ¡s fà ¡cil definir, de que se trata, que es lo mà ¡s conveniente, donde se encuentra la clave de esta situacià ³n, las preguntas mencionadas son ordinarias, pero solo aquellas personas que verdaderamente toman decisiones, ellas se dan cuenta que la raà ­z del problema no està ¡ en la definicià ³n equivocada sino en aquellas decisiones que son aceptadas e incompletas. Las especificaciones: Es importante en esta etapa definir con total claridad las especificaciones que deben tomar en cuenta para la decisià ³n que tienen que desarrollar, que objetivos tiene que alcanzar la decisià ³n, las mà ­nimas metas que tiene que alcanzar, etc. La decisià ³n: Una vez clasificado el problema, definido el problema, y con las especificaciones necesarias se procederà ¡ a la decisià ³n la cual consiste en solucionar el problema de manera correcta, en lugar de solo aceptar, pero si se conoce las condiciones bajo las cuales se toman las decisiones, el que toma las decisiones puede tener confusiones y acabar por decidir por lo que es incorrecto. Aceptar una decisià ³n solo consiste una pà ©rdida de tiempo porque de esta manera solo eluden responsabilidades y no tratan de solucionar el problema de manera correcta. La accià ³n: El proceso de pasar la decisià ³n a una accià ³n es tal vez la mà ¡s difà ­cil de las etapas, ya que es el que mà ¡s tiempo consume , tiene que tratarse de llevarla a cabo, ponerla en prà ¡ctica para que la decisià ³n tenga una respuesta eficaz, para ello es importante plantearse estrategias que ayuden al cumplimiento de los objetivos. Para que exista decisià ³n es importante que existan personas que las lleven a cabo pasando por todas sus etapas respectivas, la persona que lleve a cabo la decisià ³n tiene que tener presente las siguientes preguntas; quien tiene que conocer esta decisià ³n, que accià ³n hay que emprender, quien la llevarà ¡ a cabo, tiene que ser lo mà ¡s objetivo posible, utilizando su creatividad, innovacià ³n ya que la decisià ³n que toma es completamente importante ya que puede ser satisfactoria o insatisfactoria ocasionando graves perjuicios por una decisià ³n inadecuada. El control de los resultados: Es la à ºltima etapa de la toma de decisiones y tal vez una de las mà ¡s importantes ya que es la encargada de la supervisià ³n y transmisià ³n de la decisià ³n, ya que si al momento de inspeccionar se encuentra un error lo mà ¡s posible es que se regrese al inicio, y se comience a resolver todos los pasos nuevamente. Como es propio del hombre que siempre toma decisiones, se pueden equivocar, las decisiones tienen un alto grado de riesgo, ya que no se està ¡ completamente seguros de que la decisià ³n que ha sido elegida es la correcta. 1.6 DESARROLLO DE ALTERNATIVAS Y EL FACTOR LIMITANTE Una vez que las metas han sido definidas, todo proceso previo a la toma de decisiones presenta en su gran mayorà ­a alternativas mediante las cuales las personas pueden escoger la mà ¡s conveniente posible, asà ­ tambià ©n es casi imposible encontrar que para un problema solo exista una solucià ³n, cuando existe estos casos es porque las personas no se han tomado el tiempo suficiente para analizar el problema, y se van por el camino mà ¡s rà ¡pido, adaptar la primera solucià ³n que se le viene a la mente sin percatarse de que sea la mejor ,solo aceptan porque de una manera se desasen del problema, aquà ­ tambià ©n se puede observar que la decisià ³n mal elegida conlleva a un resultado deficiente, es decir que el logro de objetivos es nulo. En el logro de objetivos se puede encontrar un factor que influye negativamente en el proceso del logro de objetivos, el cual es el factor limitante que consiste en todo aquello que se interpone en el cumplimiento de los objetivos predeterminados. Lo cual hace que no se cumpla con el objetivo deseado. El principio del factor limitante se basa en: Para seleccionar el mejor curso de accià ³n alternativo se deben identificar y superar los factores que mà ¡s firmemente se oponen al cumplimiento de la meta.[2] Concordamos con los autores ya que para lograr alcanzar las metas trazadas es de vital importancia tratar de eliminar los factores que obstruyen al logro de lo propuesto. Por ejemplo si nuestro objetivo es terminar nuestra carrera con un alto grado de rendimiento, tenemos que tomar la decisià ³n de estudiar de la manera mà ¡s apropiada posible para lograr nuestro objetivo, asimismo tratar de eliminar lo que nos obstruye la realizacià ³n de nuestras metas, las cuales serà ­an evitar las distracciones, priorizar nuestras actividades realizando las que consideremos que nos va a ayudar al cumplimiento de nuestra meta. Es primordial tener presente este factor que en el momento menos esperado podemos realizar de manera inconsciente, por ello es conveniente tener lo mà ¡s claro posible la meta a la cual queremos llegar, tener nuestro objetivo bien definido nos va a ayudar evitar estos impedimentos que se nos puede presentar en el desarrollo de las metas. 1.7 EVALUACIà ³N DE ALTERNATIVAS Para evaluar las alternativas es necesario tener en cuenta dos factores: Factores cuantitativos Factores cualitativos Los factores cuantitativos segà ºn Koonts, Weihrich (2004) lo definen como: Estos factores son los que pueden medirse en tà ©rminos numà ©ricos Como el tiempo o los diversos costos fijo y de operacià ³n.P.193. Este tipo de factores es mà ¡s utilizado para comparar planes alternativos para el logro eficiente de los objetivos propuestos, pero cabe mencionar que el à ©xito de un proyecto depende de no ignorar los factores intangibles o cualitativos. Los factores cualitativos lo definen como: Son aquellos difà ­ciles de medir numà ©ricamente, como la calidad de las Relaciones laborales, el riesgo del cambio tecnolà ³gico o el estado de Las condiciones polà ­ticas internacionales Este tipo de factor es mà ¡s utilizado para comenzar a identificar estos factores, para despuà ©s adicionarlos a un valor cuantitativo razonable. CAPITULO II 2. TIPOS Bà ¡SICOS DE DECISIONES 2.1 TIPOS DE PROBLEMAS Las personas nos enfrentamos diariamente a distintos tipos de problemas, algunos resultan conocidos para nosotros y podemos resolverlos con facilidad, pero otros son mà ¡s complicados y el grado de dificultad para solucionarlos es mà ¡s complejo. Cuando los problemas aumentan y el tiempo para resolverlos es mà ­nimo conlleva a obtener resultados no agradables. Para ello Hellriegel Don (2002) en su libro propone lo que genera resultados insatisfactorios: Soluciones Incompletas: Cuando existen muchos problemas sin resolver, lo cual hace referencia a que no se ha identificado el origen del problema, por ello es que no se puede resolver. Problemas recurrentes y en aumento: Cuando se dan soluciones que no eliminan el problema por completo, dejando efectos que generan mayores problemas con el paso del tiempo, se podrà ­a decir que es mà ¡s comà ºn en las organizaciones. La urgencia sustituye a la importancia: Cuando se trata de dar soluciones las cuales se ven afectadas por interrupciones reiteradas. Problemas que se convierten en crisis: Cuando no se toma importancia a los problemas sino hasta que llegan a su là ­mite, es decir justo cuando està ¡ a punto de estallar. Estamos de acuerdo con Hellriegel, porque las personas en alguna parte de nuestra existencia hemos pasado por los distintos tipos de problemas que han sido mencionados, alguna vez hemos tratado de dar soluciones incompletas a cierto problema que se nos presento, pero no lo hemos resuelto completamente, tambià ©n se nos a presentado problemas que cada vez se iban incrementando conforme pasaba el tiempo, para lo cual hemos presentado un poco de miedo para resolverlos, del mismo modo hemos llegado a tener problemas que se han convertido en crisis, ya que no le damos la importancia en el momento indicado sin percatarnos que a lo à ºnico que conlleva es a que el problema se agrande cada vez mas y sea mà ¡s dificultoso para nosotros tratar de resolverlos, sin embargo si lo hubià ©ramos resuelto en el momento indicado la preocupacià ³n por ello serà ­a menor, tambià ©n se podrà ­a decir que las personas dejan pasar algunos problemas por temor a no poderlos resolver o al simple hecho de no aceptar que existe el problema cuando este se encuentra al frente de nosotros mismos. 2.2 TIPO DE SOLUCIONES Los problemas podemos solucionarlos de distintas maneras, pero es mà ¡s factible para nosotros darle solucià ³n a problemas que hemos presenciado anteriormente, y es mà ¡s dificultoso tratar de solucionar un problema nuevo, al cual nunca hemos experimentado, ya que no sabemos cà ³mo enfrentarlos por la razà ³n de que nunca lo hemos pasado, a falta de experiencia. Por ejemplo: a un doctor se le puede presentar un paciente con tuberculosis, entonces à ©l puede darle solucià ³n a la enfermedad de su paciente ya que anteriormente a tenido pacientes que han presentado ese problema, es conocido por el doctor. Pero sà ­ al doctor se le presentara un problema con su auto, el tal vez no lo podrà ­a resolver, ya que no tiene los conocimientos necesarios para darle solucià ³n al problema, lo mà ¡s factible serà ­a que buscarà ¡ a un mecà ¡nico, el cual pueda solucionarlo. 2.3 DECISIONES RUTINARIAS Las decisiones rutinarias son aquellas que se toman diariamente, es decir todos los dà ­as, cuando se presentan problemas relativamente conocidos para los que existen una diversidad de soluciones, las cuales se pueden escoger la que se consideren mà ¡s apropiadas de acuerdo al grado de complejidad del problema. En las empresas debe tratarse de evitar tomar decisiones rutinarias ya que lo que exige un problema es una solucià ³n innovadora, lo cual darà ¡ como resultado buscar una solucià ³n mejor a la propuesta anteriormente, el cual debe ser el objetivo de las decisiones que cada vez que se presente un problema tratar de darle una solucià ³n que cada vez sea mà ¡s eficiente, asà ­ como ingeniosa creativa, para llevar a la prosperidad los problemas que se presenten tanto en las organizaciones como en nuestra vida diaria. Pero si se decide aplicar decisiones rutinarias y estas sean eficientes, es decir tengan un rà ©gimen de utilidad alto es necesario llevar un control continuo de las decisiones que se toman, asimismo llevar una planeacià ³n estratà ©gica, plantearse estrategias para dar soluciones eficientes e innovadoras, tratar de ver las decisiones como un reto el cual debe ser el mà ¡s eficaz posible y planeacià ³n tà ¡ctica para darse cuenta si es conveniente o no tratar de cambiarlas, si las decisiones tomadas dan resultados satisfactorios deberà ¡ tratar de mejorarlas y si por el contrario dan resultado insatisfactorios deberà ¡ buscarse la mejor manera posible de tratar de cambiarla. 2.4 DECISIONES ADAPTATIVAS: Son aquellas decisiones que representan la evolucià ³n y el desarrollo de las decisiones rutinarias. A continuacià ³n las decisiones de adaptacià ³n segà ºn Hellriegel Don el cual sostiene que:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Las decisiones de adaptacià ³n son elecciones hechas en respuesta a una combinacià ³n de problemas mà ¡s o menos desacostumbrados para los que hay soluciones alternas.[3] Concordamos con los autores ya que las decisiones de adaptacià ³n son aquellas decisiones que toma el hombre, a las cuales termina acomodà ¡ndose de acuerdo al problema que se le presente, los cuales son desconocidos para ellos y se ven en la obligacià ³n de escoger una solucià ³n entre las diferentes alternativas que se les muestren.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Las personas deben adaptarse a los problemas, tomarlos de manera positiva, sentirse capaz de buscar soluciones, sin llegar al estrà ©s y a la frustracià ³n, tratar de encontrar una solucià ³n para cada problema que se le presente, pero tambià ©n cabe mencionar que no todas las persona reaccionan de la misma manera, ya que las persona con alta autoestima tienden a ver todo lo positivo, se sienten capaz de resolver los problemas con una facilidad que la diferencian de las personas de baja autoestima que no creen en sà ­ mismos, se sienten incapaces de resolver un problema y no se acomodan a las La Importancia De La Toma Decisiones La Importancia De La Toma Decisiones INTRODUCCIà ³N Esta breve introduccià ³n nos servirà ¡ para apreciar la importancia de la toma decisiones, y entender de quà © manera repercute en el logro de objetivos. Presenta etapas mediante las cuales se pueden desarrollar decisiones eficientes, diariamente realizamos decisiones ya sea en el à ¡mbito laboral, personal, etc. En el CAPITULO I, se tratara de la toma de decisiones, su definicià ³n, caracterà ­sticas, funciones, condiciones en las que surge, etapas y desarrollo de alternativas, solucià ³n limitante y evaluacià ³n de problemas. En el CAPITULO II, se desarrollarà ¡ los tipos bà ¡sicos de decisiones, tipos de problemas, tipos de soluciones, decisiones rutinarias, decisiones adaptativas, decisiones de innovacià ³n, decisiones programadas y no programadas. En el CAPITULO III, se hablarà ¡ de los modelos de la toma de decisiones, modelo racional, modelo racional limitado y modelo polà ­tico Y en el CAPITULO IV, contiene la toma de decisiones pero a nivel de grupo, importancia de la toma de decisiones en grupo y como lograr que funcione la toma de decisiones en grupo, la cual se basa en el apoyo de todos los miembros para lograr una mayor eficiencia en la decisià ³n elegida. CAPITULO I I. TOMA DE DECISIONES 1.1 DEFINICIà ³N: Las personas realizamos toma de decisiones todos los dà ­as, ya sea en el à ¡mbito laboral, personal, econà ³mico, etc. Es de vital importancia ya que elegimos un camino, entre las diferentes opciones que se puedan presentar en busca de lograr un objetivo o alcanzar nuestra meta previamente predeterminada. Harol Koonts y Heinz Weihrich en su libro Administracià ³n una perspectiva global definen la toma de decisiones de la siguiente manera: La toma de decisiones es la seleccià ³n de un curso de accià ³n entre varias Alternativas, y constituye por lo tanto la esencia de la planeacià ³n.[1] Estamos de acuerdo con lo planteado por los autores ya que para tomar decisiones se tiene que analizar previamente diversas alternativas, ademà ¡s no puede decirse que exista una planeacià ³n sino se ha tomado una decisià ³n. Asà ­ tambià ©n cabe mencionar que en el à ¡mbito empresarial las personas que toman decisiones son los administradores, la cual consideran de vital importancia en el desarrollo de su trabajo. En toda situacià ³n que se pueda presentar en nuestra vida cotidiana para realizar una toma de decisiones y esta sea eficiente se tiene que hacer un anà ¡lisis de las alternativas minuciosa ya que el à ©xito o el fracaso depende de la decisià ³n que adoptemos , por ello es recomendable que para tomar una decisià ³n y esta sea lo mà ¡s acertada posible, es primordial realizar todas las etapas de la toma de decisiones: Clasificacià ³n del problema, condiciones que tiene que satisfacer la respuesta al problema, decidir sobre lo que es correcto, en lugar de sobre lo que es aceptable, incluir dentro de la decisià ³n las acciones que hay que llevar a cabo, establecer el control que comprueba la validez y la eficacia de la decisià ³n en relacià ³n con el estado actual de los hechos. La toma de decisiones a nivel individual es caracterizada por que una persona haga uso de su razonamiento y pensamiento para elegir una decisià ³n a un problema que se le presente en la vida; es decir, si una persona tiene un problema, à ©sta deberà ¡ ser capaz de resolverlo individualmente a travà ©s de tomar decisiones con ese especifico motivo. En la toma de decisiones importa la eleccià ³n de un camino a seguir, por lo que en un estadio anterior deben evaluarse alternativas de accià ³n. Si estas à ºltimas no està ¡n presentes, no existirà ¡ decisià ³n. Para tomar una decisià ³n, no importa su naturaleza, es necesario conocer, comprender, analizar un problema, para asà ­ poder darle solucià ³n; en algunos casos por ser tan simples y cotidianos, este proceso se realiza de forma implà ­cita y se soluciona muy rà ¡pidamente, pero existen otros casos en los cuales las consecuencias de una mala o buena eleccià ³n puede tener repercusiones en la vida y si es en un contexto laboral en el à ©xito o fracaso de la organizacià ³n, para los cuales es necesario realizar un proceso mà ¡s estructurado que puede dar mà ¡s seguridad e informacià ³n para resolver el problema. Gracias a las decisiones podemos tener una opinià ³n crà ­tica. La manera mà ¡s adecuada de proceder a la hora de tomar decisiones en una empresa es analizar la situacià ³n desde todos los puntos de vista posibles. Despuà ©s es necesario actuar con seguridad y conviccià ³n. Independientemente tambià ©n de cuà ¡l sea nuestra posicià ³n en la empresa, podemos solicitar la cooperacià ³n de los demà ¡s, y agradecer sus ideas. Hay que saber lo que puede rendir cada empleado, cuà ¡les son las obligaciones que tiene y exigirle que las cumpla, pero siempre con educacià ³n y asertividad, conductas que indican seguridad en nuestra capacidad de liderazgo y confianza en las competencias de los demà ¡s. Tanto la toma de decisiones como la organizacià ³n laboral se asientan en la facultad de delegar. No se trata de dar mà ¡s trabajo o responsabilidad a los subordinados, sino mejor trabajo, con el fin de que todos nos centremos en lo que es valioso para la empresa. La delegacià ³n evidencia el à ©xito directivo si va acompaà ±ada de un buen criterio de seleccià ³n, formacià ³n y refuerzo. La toma de decisiones en una organizacià ³n se circunscribe a una serie de personas que està ¡n apoyando el mismo proyecto. Debemos empezar por hacer una seleccià ³n de decisiones, y esta seleccià ³n es una de las tareas de gran trascendencia. Con frecuencia se dice que las decisiones son algo asà ­ como el motor de los negocios y en efecto, de la adecuada seleccià ³n de alternativas depende en gran parte el à ©xito de cualquier organizacià ³n. Para los administradores, el proceso de toma de decisià ³n es sin duda una de las mayores responsabilidades, ya que ellos consideran a veces la toma de decisiones como su trabajo principal, porque constantemente tienen que decidir lo que debe hacerse, quià ©n ha de hacerlo, cuà ¡ndo y dà ³nde, y en ocasiones hasta cà ³mo se harà ¡. Sin embargo, la toma de decisiones sà ³lo es un paso de la planeacià ³n, incluso cuando se hace con rapidez y dedicà ¡ndole poca atencià ³n o cuando influye sobre la accià ³n sà ³lo durante unos minutos. Se presentan a continuacià ³n algunas definiciones clà ¡sicas de los procesos que se dan en la toma de decisiones y que pueden aclarar de forma importante una serie de procesos de toma de decisiones, que es una parte de la resolucià ³n de problemas: Decisiones: Son combinaciones de situaciones y conductas que pueden ser descritas en tà ©rminos de tres componentes esenciales: acciones alternativas, consecuencias y sucesos inciertos. Resultado: Son situaciones describibles pà ºblicamente que ocurrirà ­an cuando se llevan a cabo las conductas alternativas que se han generado. Como todas las situaciones son dinà ¡micas y suponen que si se continà ºa la toma de accià ³n el resultado puede variar. Consecuencias: Son las reacciones evaluativas subjetivas, medidas en tà ©rminos de bueno o malo, ganancias o pà ©rdidas, asociadas con cada resultado. Incertidumbre: Se refiere a los juicios de quien toma la decisià ³n de la propensià ³n de cada suceso de ocurrir. Se describe con medidas que incluyen probabilidad, confianza, y posibilidad Preferencias: Son conductas expresivas de elegir, o intenciones de elegir, un curso de accià ³n sobre otros. Tomar una decisià ³n: Se refiere al proceso entero de elegir un curso de accià ³n. Juicio: Son los componentes del proceso de decisià ³n que se refieren a valorar, estimar, inferir que sucesos ocurrirà ¡n y cuà ¡les serà ¡n las reacciones evaluativas del que toma la decisià ³n en los resultados que obtenga. Segà ºn estas definiciones el proceso de toma de decisiones serà ­a encontrar una conducta adecuada para una situacià ³n en la que hay una serie de sucesos inciertos. La eleccià ³n de la situacià ³n ya es un elemento que puede entrar en el proceso. Hay que elegir los elementos que son relevantes y obviar los que no lo son y analizar las relaciones entre ellos. Una vez determinada cual es la situacià ³n, para tomar decisiones es necesario elaborar acciones alternativas, para imaginar la situacià ³n final y evaluar los resultados teniendo en cuenta la incertidumbre de cada resultado y su valor. Asà ­ se obtiene una imagen de las consecuencias que tendrà ­a cada una de las acciones alternativas que se han definido. De acuerdo con las consecuencias se asocia a la situacià ³n la conducta mà ¡s idà ³nea eligià ©ndola como curso de accià ³n. 1.2 CARACTERISTICAS DE LA TOMA DE DECISIONES Las caracterà ­sticas mà ¡s importantes en la toma de decisiones son: 1. Efectos futuros: Tiene que ver con la medida en que los compromisos relacionados con la decisià ³n que tomemos afectarà ¡n el futuro. Una decisià ³n que implica mucha influencia a largo plazo, puede ser considerada una decisià ³n de alto nivel ya que debemos de analizarla y concluir con la decisià ³n que tomemos a futuro, mientras que una decisià ³n con efectos a corto plazo puede ser tomada a un nivel muy inferior ya que a la conclusià ³n que lleguemos serà ¡ para ser realizada de manera inmediata. 2. Reversibilidad: Se refiere a la velocidad con que una decisià ³n puede revertirse y la dificultad que implica hacer este cambio. Si revertir es difà ­cil, se recomienda tomar la decisià ³n a un nivel alto; que sea a largo plazo pero si revertir es fà ¡cil, se requiere tomar la decisià ³n a un nivel bajo, se realizarà ¡ a corto plazo. 3. Impacto: Esta caracterà ­stica se refiere a la medida en que otras à ¡reas o actividades se ven afectadas. Si el impacto es extensivo, es indicado tomar la decisià ³n a un nivel alto; un impacto à ºnico se asocia con una decisià ³n tomada a un nivel bajo. 4. Calidad: Este factor se refiere a las relaciones laborales, valores à ©ticos, consideraciones legales, principios bà ¡sicos de conducta, imagen de la compaà ±Ãƒ ­a, etc. Si muchos de estos factores està ¡n involucrados, se requiere tomar la decisià ³n a un nivel alto; si solo algunos factores son relevantes, se recomienda tomar la decisià ³n a un nivel bajo. 1.3 FUNCION DE LA TOMA DE DECISIONES Los fundamentos de la toma de decisiones, los cuales comprenden definir problemas, recopilar datos, generar opciones y elegir un curso de accià ³n. Analizaremos la forma en que gerentes y empleados pueden abordar diversos tipos de decisiones con base en la naturaleza del problema que hay que resolver, las posibles soluciones a la mano y el grado de riesgo implà ­cito. Loa gerentes eficaces se basan en varias competencias gerenciales para tomar e instrumentar sus decisiones. A su vez, la toma de decisiones es la base de casi todas las competencias gerenciales. 1.4 CONDICIONES EN LA TOMA DE DECISIONES Las circunstancias en que los individuos toman decisiones reciben el influjo de desarrollos y acontecimientos que ellos no controlan, pero los cuales podrà ­an repercutir a futuro en los resultados de lo que hayan decidido. La decisiones se ven influidas por fuerzas que van desde las nuevas tecnologà ­as o el ingreso de nuevos competidores a un mercado hasta las nuevas leyes o las agitaciones polà ­ticas. Ademà ¡s de identificar y medir la magnitud de estas fuerzas, los gerentes deben estimar su posible impacto. Las circunstancias en que se toman decisiones se clasifican en tà ©rminos de certidumbre, riesgo e incertidumbre. Cuando los individuos identifican desarrollos y acontecimientos y el posible impacto de estos con un elevado grado de seguridad, toman decisiones en condiciones de certidumbre. Cuando la informacià ³n escasea y es ambigua, la toma de decisiones se realiza en condiciones de riesgo. En esta situacià ³n, las personas basan sus decisiones en probabilidades objetivas (claras) o subjetivas (intuiciones y juicios). La condicià ³n de incertidumbre significa que los individuos cuentan con escasa o nula informacià ³n sobre acontecimientos y fuerzas para basar una decisià ³n. Por la incertidumbre los responsables de la toma de decisiones quizà ¡ solo puedan hacer suposiciones razonables de los posibles resultados de la decisià ³n. CERTIDUMBRE Hellriegel, Weihrich (2002) expresaron:: La certidumbre es la condicià ³n en la cual los individuos està ¡n completamente informados del problema, se conocen soluciones alternas y los resultados de cada solucià ³n son predecibles por completo. En condiciones de certidumbre, la gente al menos prevà © (si no es que controla) los hechos y consecuencias. Esta condicià ³n significa que se conoce en forma cabal y està ¡n definidos con claridad tanto el problema como las soluciones alternas. Una vez que el individuo identifica soluciones opcionales y los resultados que cabe esperar de estas, tomar la decisià ³n es un tanto sencillo, y quien lo hace solo elige la solucià ³n que arroje el mejor resultado posible. La toma de decisiones en condiciones de certidumbre es la excepcià ³n para la mayorà ­a de los gerentes y otros profesionales. Sin embargo, los de primera là ­nea toman decisiones todos los dà ­as en dichas condiciones, o casi. Por ejemplo, un aumento en el trà ¡nsito de paquetes cerca de un periodo vacacional puede obligar a un gerente de primera là ­nea en el centro de Fedex en Memphis, Tennessee, a pedir a 10 empleados que trabajen dos horas de tiempo extra. El gerente determina el costo de las horas extras con toda certidumbre. Tambià ©n anticipa con cierta certeza la cantidad de paquetes adicionales que se procesaran. De este modo, los costos laborales reales del manejo de la paqueterà ­a pueden calcularse con una seguridad relativa antes de programar las horas extras. RIESGO El riesgo es la condicià ³n en que los individuos definen un problema, especifican la probabilidad de ciertos hechos, identifican soluciones alternas y exponen la probabilidad de que cada solucià ³n de los resultados deseados. El riesgo en general significa que el problema y las soluciones opcionales ocupan un punto intermedio entre los extremos que representan la certidumbre y el carà ¡cter desacostumbrado y ambiguo de la incertidumbre. La probabilidad es el porcentaje de veces en que ocurrirà ­a cierto resultado si el individuo tomara muchas veces la misma decisià ³n. El ejemplo de la probabilidad mà ¡s comà ºn es cuando unos lanza al aire una moneda: al cabo de los lanzamientos suficientes, el 50 por ciento de las veces aparecerà ¡ cara y el 50 por ciento restantes cruces. Las aseguradoras recurren mucho al concepto de probabilidad para todo tipo de primas. La calidad de la informacià ³n de que se dispone un individuo sobre la condicià ³n adecuada para tomar decisiones varà ­a mucho, lo mismo que las estimaciones de riesgo que realice. El tipo, monto y confiabilidad de la informacià ³n influyen en el nivel de riesgo y en el hecho de si el responsable de tomar la decisià ³n puede basarse en probabilidades objetivas o subjetivas para calcular el resultado. Probabilidad Objetiva Es la posibilidad de que ocurra determinado resultado con base en hechos ya existentes y cifras concretas, En ocasiones, es posible estimar el resultado probable de una decisià ³n examinando registros anteriores. Por ejemplo, aunque Allstate, Famers y otras compaà ±Ãƒ ­as de seguros de vida no pueden determina el aà ±o en que morirà ¡ cada asegurado, calculan probabilidades objetivas de que ciertos asegurados, de diversas categorà ­as de edad, fenezcan en un aà ±o en particular. Estas probabilidades objetivas se fundan en la expectativa de que los à ­ndices de mortalidad prevalecientes en el pasado se repitan en el futuro Probabilidad Subjetiva Es la apreciacià ³n basada en juicios y opiniones personales de que ocurra un resultado en particular. Tales juicios varà ­an de un individuo a otro, dependiendo de su intuicià ³n, experiencia en situaciones similares, conocimientos y rasgos de personalidad (por ejemplo, preferencia por correr o evitar riesgos) Don Dembo es presidente del consejo de administracià ³n y director general de Algorithmics, Inc., y toda una autoridad en riesgos empresariales. Su empresa vende software aplicaciones con nombres como Risk Watch y Risk Mapper a bancos, aseguradoras y otras compaà ±Ãƒ ­as que necesitan asistencia para medir y manejar sus riesgos financieros. Sus comentarios vienen muy bien a colacià ³n con la toma de decisiones en condiciones de riesgo dentro de un marco de probabilidades subjetivas: Ahora el mundo es mà ¡s riesgoso porque todo està ¡ mucho mà ¡s interconectadoSi usted no maneja riesgos, no afirme que administra o gerencia un negocioManejar riesgos significa pensar en el futuro, no en el pasado. Algunas de las mejores mentes para los negocios subestiman este aspecto. Todos nos sentimos a gusto basando nuestras estrategias a futuro en el pasado. Esta es la razà ³n por la que los riesgos que no anticipamos pueden tomarnos por sorpresa- y porque resulta tan difà ­cil tener en cuenta sucesos para los que no hay precedentes. INCERTIDUMBRE La incertidumbre es la condicià ³n en que un individuo no dispone de la informacià ³n necesaria para asignar probabilidades a los resultados de las soluciones alternas. De hecho, quizà ¡ la persona este imposibilitada incluso para definir es problema, y ni hablar de que identifique soluciones alternar son ambiguos e inusuales. Enfrentar la incertidumbre es una de las facetas mà ¡s importantes de la labor de muchos gerentes y otros profesionales como los ingenieros en investigacià ³n y desarrollo, los investigadores de mercado y los planificadores de estrategias. Para absorber la incertidumbre, los gerentes, equipos y otros profesionales necesitan a menudo recurrir a su intuicià ³n, creatividad y toda la informacià ³n disponible para juzgar el curso de accià ³n (la decisià ³n) que deben seguir. Fuente: Hellriegel, Weihrich (2002), Administracià ³n un enfoque basado en competencias. 1.5 ETAPAS DE LA TOMA DE DECISIONES: Segà ºn Harvard Bussiness la toma de decisiones, para que sean mà ¡s eficientes deben pasar previamente por las siguientes etapas: Clasificacià ³n del problema.  ¿Se trata de un problema genà ©rico?  ¿Es excepcional y à ºnico? Definicià ³n del problema.  ¿Con que nos tenemos que enfrentar? Condiciones que tiene que satisfacer la respuesta al problema.  ¿Cuà ¡les son las condiciones de campo que delimitan el problema? Decidir sobre lo que es correcto, en lugar de sobre lo que es aceptable, con objeto de cumplir las condiciones de campo.  ¿Quà © es lo que satisfacerà ¡ totalmente a las condiciones antes de que se consideren los compromisos, adaptaciones y concesiones necesarias para hacer la decisià ³n aceptable? Incluir dentro de la decisià ³n las acciones que hay que llevar a cabo.  ¿En quà © consisten las acciones que hay que realizar?  ¿Quià ©n las tiene que conocer? Establecer el control que comprueba la validez y la eficacia de la decisià ³n en relacià ³n con el estado actual de los hechos  ¿Cà ³mo se està ¡ llevando a cabo la decisià ³n?  ¿Son adecuados u obsoletos los supuestos en los que se basa? Clasificacià ³n del problema: Consiste en ordenar de manera que resulte mà ¡s fà ¡cil para las personas dar solucià ³n, ya que el problema puede tener un grado excepcional o à ºnico. Siempre hay que tratar en gran medida de contestar a lo genà ©rico mediante una regla o un principio, pero el problema excepcional solo se le puede dar solucià ³n de la manera que se crea conveniente. Existe el suceso autà ©nticamente genà ©rico, que consiste en que un acontecimiento individual lo à ºnico que representa es un sà ­ntoma. Estos problemas surgen en su gran mayorà ­a en las organizaciones, en la parte de produccià ³n. En la cual no se toman decisiones sino se tratan de adaptaciones. Suceso autà ©nticamente excepcional, aquà ­ se quiere conocer si se trata de una excepcià ³n de verdad o solo de una manifestacià ³n de un genero nuevo. Definicià ³n del problema: Una vez que se ha identificado o clasificado el problema es mà ¡s fà ¡cil definir, de que se trata, que es lo mà ¡s conveniente, donde se encuentra la clave de esta situacià ³n, las preguntas mencionadas son ordinarias, pero solo aquellas personas que verdaderamente toman decisiones, ellas se dan cuenta que la raà ­z del problema no està ¡ en la definicià ³n equivocada sino en aquellas decisiones que son aceptadas e incompletas. Las especificaciones: Es importante en esta etapa definir con total claridad las especificaciones que deben tomar en cuenta para la decisià ³n que tienen que desarrollar, que objetivos tiene que alcanzar la decisià ³n, las mà ­nimas metas que tiene que alcanzar, etc. La decisià ³n: Una vez clasificado el problema, definido el problema, y con las especificaciones necesarias se procederà ¡ a la decisià ³n la cual consiste en solucionar el problema de manera correcta, en lugar de solo aceptar, pero si se conoce las condiciones bajo las cuales se toman las decisiones, el que toma las decisiones puede tener confusiones y acabar por decidir por lo que es incorrecto. Aceptar una decisià ³n solo consiste una pà ©rdida de tiempo porque de esta manera solo eluden responsabilidades y no tratan de solucionar el problema de manera correcta. La accià ³n: El proceso de pasar la decisià ³n a una accià ³n es tal vez la mà ¡s difà ­cil de las etapas, ya que es el que mà ¡s tiempo consume , tiene que tratarse de llevarla a cabo, ponerla en prà ¡ctica para que la decisià ³n tenga una respuesta eficaz, para ello es importante plantearse estrategias que ayuden al cumplimiento de los objetivos. Para que exista decisià ³n es importante que existan personas que las lleven a cabo pasando por todas sus etapas respectivas, la persona que lleve a cabo la decisià ³n tiene que tener presente las siguientes preguntas; quien tiene que conocer esta decisià ³n, que accià ³n hay que emprender, quien la llevarà ¡ a cabo, tiene que ser lo mà ¡s objetivo posible, utilizando su creatividad, innovacià ³n ya que la decisià ³n que toma es completamente importante ya que puede ser satisfactoria o insatisfactoria ocasionando graves perjuicios por una decisià ³n inadecuada. El control de los resultados: Es la à ºltima etapa de la toma de decisiones y tal vez una de las mà ¡s importantes ya que es la encargada de la supervisià ³n y transmisià ³n de la decisià ³n, ya que si al momento de inspeccionar se encuentra un error lo mà ¡s posible es que se regrese al inicio, y se comience a resolver todos los pasos nuevamente. Como es propio del hombre que siempre toma decisiones, se pueden equivocar, las decisiones tienen un alto grado de riesgo, ya que no se està ¡ completamente seguros de que la decisià ³n que ha sido elegida es la correcta. 1.6 DESARROLLO DE ALTERNATIVAS Y EL FACTOR LIMITANTE Una vez que las metas han sido definidas, todo proceso previo a la toma de decisiones presenta en su gran mayorà ­a alternativas mediante las cuales las personas pueden escoger la mà ¡s conveniente posible, asà ­ tambià ©n es casi imposible encontrar que para un problema solo exista una solucià ³n, cuando existe estos casos es porque las personas no se han tomado el tiempo suficiente para analizar el problema, y se van por el camino mà ¡s rà ¡pido, adaptar la primera solucià ³n que se le viene a la mente sin percatarse de que sea la mejor ,solo aceptan porque de una manera se desasen del problema, aquà ­ tambià ©n se puede observar que la decisià ³n mal elegida conlleva a un resultado deficiente, es decir que el logro de objetivos es nulo. En el logro de objetivos se puede encontrar un factor que influye negativamente en el proceso del logro de objetivos, el cual es el factor limitante que consiste en todo aquello que se interpone en el cumplimiento de los objetivos predeterminados. Lo cual hace que no se cumpla con el objetivo deseado. El principio del factor limitante se basa en: Para seleccionar el mejor curso de accià ³n alternativo se deben identificar y superar los factores que mà ¡s firmemente se oponen al cumplimiento de la meta.[2] Concordamos con los autores ya que para lograr alcanzar las metas trazadas es de vital importancia tratar de eliminar los factores que obstruyen al logro de lo propuesto. Por ejemplo si nuestro objetivo es terminar nuestra carrera con un alto grado de rendimiento, tenemos que tomar la decisià ³n de estudiar de la manera mà ¡s apropiada posible para lograr nuestro objetivo, asimismo tratar de eliminar lo que nos obstruye la realizacià ³n de nuestras metas, las cuales serà ­an evitar las distracciones, priorizar nuestras actividades realizando las que consideremos que nos va a ayudar al cumplimiento de nuestra meta. Es primordial tener presente este factor que en el momento menos esperado podemos realizar de manera inconsciente, por ello es conveniente tener lo mà ¡s claro posible la meta a la cual queremos llegar, tener nuestro objetivo bien definido nos va a ayudar evitar estos impedimentos que se nos puede presentar en el desarrollo de las metas. 1.7 EVALUACIà ³N DE ALTERNATIVAS Para evaluar las alternativas es necesario tener en cuenta dos factores: Factores cuantitativos Factores cualitativos Los factores cuantitativos segà ºn Koonts, Weihrich (2004) lo definen como: Estos factores son los que pueden medirse en tà ©rminos numà ©ricos Como el tiempo o los diversos costos fijo y de operacià ³n.P.193. Este tipo de factores es mà ¡s utilizado para comparar planes alternativos para el logro eficiente de los objetivos propuestos, pero cabe mencionar que el à ©xito de un proyecto depende de no ignorar los factores intangibles o cualitativos. Los factores cualitativos lo definen como: Son aquellos difà ­ciles de medir numà ©ricamente, como la calidad de las Relaciones laborales, el riesgo del cambio tecnolà ³gico o el estado de Las condiciones polà ­ticas internacionales Este tipo de factor es mà ¡s utilizado para comenzar a identificar estos factores, para despuà ©s adicionarlos a un valor cuantitativo razonable. CAPITULO II 2. TIPOS Bà ¡SICOS DE DECISIONES 2.1 TIPOS DE PROBLEMAS Las personas nos enfrentamos diariamente a distintos tipos de problemas, algunos resultan conocidos para nosotros y podemos resolverlos con facilidad, pero otros son mà ¡s complicados y el grado de dificultad para solucionarlos es mà ¡s complejo. Cuando los problemas aumentan y el tiempo para resolverlos es mà ­nimo conlleva a obtener resultados no agradables. Para ello Hellriegel Don (2002) en su libro propone lo que genera resultados insatisfactorios: Soluciones Incompletas: Cuando existen muchos problemas sin resolver, lo cual hace referencia a que no se ha identificado el origen del problema, por ello es que no se puede resolver. Problemas recurrentes y en aumento: Cuando se dan soluciones que no eliminan el problema por completo, dejando efectos que generan mayores problemas con el paso del tiempo, se podrà ­a decir que es mà ¡s comà ºn en las organizaciones. La urgencia sustituye a la importancia: Cuando se trata de dar soluciones las cuales se ven afectadas por interrupciones reiteradas. Problemas que se convierten en crisis: Cuando no se toma importancia a los problemas sino hasta que llegan a su là ­mite, es decir justo cuando està ¡ a punto de estallar. Estamos de acuerdo con Hellriegel, porque las personas en alguna parte de nuestra existencia hemos pasado por los distintos tipos de problemas que han sido mencionados, alguna vez hemos tratado de dar soluciones incompletas a cierto problema que se nos presento, pero no lo hemos resuelto completamente, tambià ©n se nos a presentado problemas que cada vez se iban incrementando conforme pasaba el tiempo, para lo cual hemos presentado un poco de miedo para resolverlos, del mismo modo hemos llegado a tener problemas que se han convertido en crisis, ya que no le damos la importancia en el momento indicado sin percatarnos que a lo à ºnico que conlleva es a que el problema se agrande cada vez mas y sea mà ¡s dificultoso para nosotros tratar de resolverlos, sin embargo si lo hubià ©ramos resuelto en el momento indicado la preocupacià ³n por ello serà ­a menor, tambià ©n se podrà ­a decir que las personas dejan pasar algunos problemas por temor a no poderlos resolver o al simple hecho de no aceptar que existe el problema cuando este se encuentra al frente de nosotros mismos. 2.2 TIPO DE SOLUCIONES Los problemas podemos solucionarlos de distintas maneras, pero es mà ¡s factible para nosotros darle solucià ³n a problemas que hemos presenciado anteriormente, y es mà ¡s dificultoso tratar de solucionar un problema nuevo, al cual nunca hemos experimentado, ya que no sabemos cà ³mo enfrentarlos por la razà ³n de que nunca lo hemos pasado, a falta de experiencia. Por ejemplo: a un doctor se le puede presentar un paciente con tuberculosis, entonces à ©l puede darle solucià ³n a la enfermedad de su paciente ya que anteriormente a tenido pacientes que han presentado ese problema, es conocido por el doctor. Pero sà ­ al doctor se le presentara un problema con su auto, el tal vez no lo podrà ­a resolver, ya que no tiene los conocimientos necesarios para darle solucià ³n al problema, lo mà ¡s factible serà ­a que buscarà ¡ a un mecà ¡nico, el cual pueda solucionarlo. 2.3 DECISIONES RUTINARIAS Las decisiones rutinarias son aquellas que se toman diariamente, es decir todos los dà ­as, cuando se presentan problemas relativamente conocidos para los que existen una diversidad de soluciones, las cuales se pueden escoger la que se consideren mà ¡s apropiadas de acuerdo al grado de complejidad del problema. En las empresas debe tratarse de evitar tomar decisiones rutinarias ya que lo que exige un problema es una solucià ³n innovadora, lo cual darà ¡ como resultado buscar una solucià ³n mejor a la propuesta anteriormente, el cual debe ser el objetivo de las decisiones que cada vez que se presente un problema tratar de darle una solucià ³n que cada vez sea mà ¡s eficiente, asà ­ como ingeniosa creativa, para llevar a la prosperidad los problemas que se presenten tanto en las organizaciones como en nuestra vida diaria. Pero si se decide aplicar decisiones rutinarias y estas sean eficientes, es decir tengan un rà ©gimen de utilidad alto es necesario llevar un control continuo de las decisiones que se toman, asimismo llevar una planeacià ³n estratà ©gica, plantearse estrategias para dar soluciones eficientes e innovadoras, tratar de ver las decisiones como un reto el cual debe ser el mà ¡s eficaz posible y planeacià ³n tà ¡ctica para darse cuenta si es conveniente o no tratar de cambiarlas, si las decisiones tomadas dan resultados satisfactorios deberà ¡ tratar de mejorarlas y si por el contrario dan resultado insatisfactorios deberà ¡ buscarse la mejor manera posible de tratar de cambiarla. 2.4 DECISIONES ADAPTATIVAS: Son aquellas decisiones que representan la evolucià ³n y el desarrollo de las decisiones rutinarias. A continuacià ³n las decisiones de adaptacià ³n segà ºn Hellriegel Don el cual sostiene que:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Las decisiones de adaptacià ³n son elecciones hechas en respuesta a una combinacià ³n de problemas mà ¡s o menos desacostumbrados para los que hay soluciones alternas.[3] Concordamos con los autores ya que las decisiones de adaptacià ³n son aquellas decisiones que toma el hombre, a las cuales termina acomodà ¡ndose de acuerdo al problema que se le presente, los cuales son desconocidos para ellos y se ven en la obligacià ³n de escoger una solucià ³n entre las diferentes alternativas que se les muestren.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Las personas deben adaptarse a los problemas, tomarlos de manera positiva, sentirse capaz de buscar soluciones, sin llegar al estrà ©s y a la frustracià ³n, tratar de encontrar una solucià ³n para cada problema que se le presente, pero tambià ©n cabe mencionar que no todas las persona reaccionan de la misma manera, ya que las persona con alta autoestima tienden a ver todo lo positivo, se sienten capaz de resolver los problemas con una facilidad que la diferencian de las personas de baja autoestima que no creen en sà ­ mismos, se sienten incapaces de resolver un problema y no se acomodan a las